Technology impact on Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Technology impact on Business - Essay Example The product was developed based upon the expectations of a citizen, such as customization and multiple communication options as well as virtual personalized assistance.(Lyon, 2008). Features of the IRS contact center include round-the-clock customer access using one click that can access the customer’s desired choice of assistance, such as chat, video or audio help. Using this improved technology, more customers can be served using fewer resources, thereby resulting in improved efficiency and higher levels of customer satisfaction. The author has pointed out that as the technology evolves, it is likely to improve further and become more mobile, requiring fewer devices to function efficiently. This article also provides details of improved technology devices that can contribute to a cleaner, greener environment. One of these is the EPEAT, a project of the Green Electronics Council. This program is a tool that helps customers to compare monitors, desktops and personal computers in order to evaluate their impact on the environment in terms of the waste they generate. For example, some of these electronic devices may contain toxic or hazardous compounds and if these components are not discarded properly, they could pose a danger to the environment and can also harm public health. The EPEAT technology consists of three basic components. The first is a standard that contains fifty one environmental performance criteria IEEE 1680 to 2006 Standard for the environmental assessment of personal computers. Twenty three of these fall under the mandatory criteria while twenty eight of these criteria are optional, but all of them fall under eight basic categories – the selection of materials, reduced use of environmentally sensitive materials, conservation of energy, ensuring product longevity and ensuring they are designed with end of life management so they can be

Macro Factors that Affected Roosevelt’s Foreign Policy Initiatives Essay Example for Free

Macro Factors that Affected Roosevelt’s Foreign Policy Initiatives Essay A foreign policy is a country’s independent strategy or outline of how a sovereign state will deal with the rest of the world or how it will conduct its international affairs; this may encompass such fields as military, economy and politics. The contours of US foreign policymaking strategies were shaped to a large extent by the advantages conferred by geographical isolation of the country, lack of contiguous enemies, absence of historical baggage and the indomitable, independent streak of its early settlers who through their sheer perseverance transformed the vast wilderness of the American lands into an economic, political and military powerhouse unrivalled in the modern era. American foreign policy has seen its ups and downs ranging from a period of isolationism to active participation in world affairs to the unilateralism that characterized the Bush era. However, during the administration of Franklin D Roosevelt, American foreign policy was hobbled by the prevailing isolationist ideology and of course the economic conditions of that time. This essay examines the constraints that Roosevelt experienced in conducting the nation’s foreign policy and what events shaped the contours of Roosevelt administration foreign policy directions. During the American Revolution, The United States convinced France, Netherlands and Spain to join them in the war against Britain which was considered as a common enemy. However, after attaining independence, American foreign policy concentrated on regional matters rather than international matters. The country adopted the Monroe Doctrine which declared that America would not tolerate European interference in the Americas. However, soon thereafter American foreign policy took the stand of not interfering with other states affair in the periods before the First World War. The United States was initially not interested in involving itself in the First World War because it deemed it as a continental Europe affair. Woodrow Wilson as the President initially promised to preserve the tenets of neutrality but then was forced to enter the war on German provocation of disruption of American shipping by U boat attacks. After the war, Wilson initiated the 14 points program and created the League of Nations as also encourage idealism as an approach to international affairs. However, the imperatives of domestic politics rolled back America’s foreign policy directions away from the idealistic approach to its traditional isolationist stand. Roosevelt had internationalist views and wished to play a larger role in world affairs. However the Great depression preoccupied Roosevelt through most of his time. The Great Depression originated in the United States and had been triggered by the sudden collapse of the Stock market, which on 29 October 1929, crashed. â€Å"The shocks to the domestic US economy were a primary cause (Bernanke 2000, 5)† for the depression as the primary sector comprising of mining, farming and logging that had been listed on the stock exchange lost their share prices dramatically. This led to a panic amongst American investors who tried to keep out of the stock market and postpone their purchases of white goods. To get over the Depression, Roosevelt initiated a slew of economic reforms and measures collectively known as the ‘New Deal’. Roosevelt first sought to restore the confidence of the American people in the banking system by passing an Emergency Banking Act and creating a Federal Deposit Insurance Scheme. He embarked on massive public works projects like expansion of Dams, railroads and highways to provide employment to thousands of laid-off workers and cuts in military spending. These cuts in military spending further constrained foreign policy initiatives. The 1935 Neutrality Act passed by the Congress despite Roosevelt’s protestations further restricted the President’s foreign policy initiatives.   These were followed by the Neutrality acts of 1936 and 1937 that further tied down the President. The declaration of the Second World War in 1939, gave Roosevelt an unprecedented third term in office and a chance to redeem the US economy. At one sweep, unemployment was wiped out with youth being employed in the armed forces or in the industries to support war effort. Even then, the isolationists did not wish America to enter the war. Despite the administration’s efforts to reform the Neutrality Bill, the isolationists had a upper hand in the congress and succeeded in   obstructing the passage of the bill right until 1940 (Dalleck 1995, 191). It was only after Roosevelt steered the Lend-lease act and the surprise attack by the Japanese in 1941 that Roosevelt could get rid of the neutrality clauses and conduct the war with full vigor. Roosevelt used the Second World War to build American economy and guide its growth for America’s preeminence after the war. It was his vision and forbearance that allowed President Truman to follow a more ‘muscular’ foreign policy by declaring the famous Truman Doctrine and the Marshall plan that defined the pro-activeness of American Foreign policy from 1946 till to date. One can safely state that the considerable constraints of an isolationist’s tradition and the Great Depression hindered Roosevelt’s foreign policy initiatives, which he had to constantly battle to build America’s relevance on the international scene. Roosevelt succeeded admirably and set the stage for future American Presidents to embark on a more robust international role that today defines American foreign policy. Bibliography Bernanke, Ben. Essays on the Great Depression. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000. Dalleck, Robert. Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.

Essay --

Anthony Burgess once said that â€Å"The important thing is moral choice. Evil has to exist along with good, in order that moral choice may operate. Life is sustained by the grinding opposition of moral entities.† In his dystopian novella, Burgess discusses the topic of free will and reinforces the notion of moral choice and having the freedom to choose either good or evil. Alex starts off inherently evil, committing horrendous acts of terror, only to reveal change in the final chapter of the novel when he abandons the status quo and begins searching for a new life, one with a wife and a son of his own. Alex’s personal transformation results in a newfound freedom, which is attributed to the idea that goodness is genuine only when it is chosen, and that without moral choice man ceases to be man, but instead, he is rendered into a â€Å"clockwork orange†, a deterministic mechanism. Alex, the protagonist, becomes the first subject of Ludovico’s Technique, a rehabilitation method imposed by the state that causes a person to only commit acts of goodness. In a 1986 essay, Burgess writes, â€Å"If [a person] can only perform good or only perform evil, then he is a clockwork orange- meaning that he has the appearance of an organism lovely with colour and juice but is in fact only a clockwork toy to be wound up by God or the Devil or (since this is increasingly replacing both) the Almighty State.† Alex believes that humans are born and destined to be evil, needing societal pressures and education to become good. Alex does not view his inclination for evil as a result of his environment; rather, the dystopian setting is a result of his actions and the actions of other wrongdoers. Therefore, Alex can be seen as a victim of Original Sin, the Christian idea ... ...ho has desires to overthrow the government, ultimately uses Alex, who brutality raped his wife and led to her eventual death, as a sacrificial lamb for his own political agenda. Even the cats belonging to the old cat-lady, who Alex kills in his excursion to the Manse get reimbursed by taking all of Alex’s things. Alex is imprisoned to his past, until he assumes all responsibility for his former actions, and once he has paid the price for them, he is able to discover the newfound freedom that comes with personal growth and maturity. His desire for happiness: a loving wife, a son of his own, and a role in the working-class society, culminates in his transformation from a inherently evil child to a rational, good human being. (the 21st, which is significant, as the right to vote in Britain was granted at the age of 21 and is seen as a rite of passage into adulthood).

Individual Differences

http://www. flatworldknowledge. com/pub/1. 0/organizational-behavior/34685#web-34687 Why Individual Differences Are Important: * Individual differences have a direct effect on behavior * People who perceive things differently behave differently * People with different attitudes respond differently to directives * People with different personalities interact differently with bosses, coworkers, subordinates, and customers * Individual differences help explain: Why some people embrace change and others are fearful of it * Why some employees will be productive only if they are closely supervised, while others will be productive if they are not * Why some workers learn new tasks more effectively than others Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) Cycle * Different people are attracted to different careers and organizations as a function of their own: * abilities * interests * personalities * Organizations select employees on the basis of the needs the organization has * skills and abilities individual attributes such as values and personality * Attrition occurs when: * individuals discover they do not like being part of the organization and elect to resign, or * the organization determines an individual is not succeeding and elects to terminate * Each phase of the ASA cycle is significantly influenced by the individual differences of each person The Basis for Understanding Work Behavior: * To understand individual differences a manager must: 1. observe and recognize the differences and . study relationships between variables that influence behavior Individual Differences Influencing Work Behavior: 1. Hereditary and Diversity Factors 2. Personality 3. Ability and Skills 4. Perception 5. Attitudes Diversity Factors Primary Dimensions (stable) * Age * Ethnicity * Gender * Physical attributes * Race * Sexual / affectional orientation Secondary Dimensions (changeable) * Educational background * Marital status * Religious beliefs * Health * Work experience Abilities and Skil ls Ability – a person’s talent to perform a mental or physical task * Skill – a learned talent that a person has acquired to perform a task KEY ABILITIES: 1. Mental Ability 2. Emotional Intelligence 3. Tacit Knowledge Attitudes * Are determinates of behavior because they are linked with perception, personality, feelings, and motivation * Attitude – a mental state of readiness * learned and organized through experience * exerting a specific response to people, objects, and situations with which it is related Attitudes: Implications for the Manager . Attitudes are learned 2. Attitudes define one’s predispositions toward given aspects of the world 3. Attitudes provide the emotional basis of one’s interpersonal relations and identification with others 4. Attitudes are organized and are close to the core of personality The Three (3) Components of Attitude: 1. Cognition (Beliefs and Values) – My supervisor is unfair. 2. Affect (Feelings and emotions) – I don’t like my supervisor. 3. Behavior (Intended behavior) – I’ve submitted a formal request to transfer. Cognition * What individuals know about themselves and their environment * Implies a conscious process of acquiring knowledge * Evaluative beliefs – favorable or unfavorable impressions that a person holds toward an object or person Affect * The emotional component of an attitude * Often learned from * parents * teachers * peer group members * The part of an attitude that is associated with â€Å"feeling† a certain way about a person, group, or situation Cognitive Dissonance * A discrepancy between attitudes and behaviors A mental state of anxiety * Occurs when there is a conflict among an individual’s various cognitions after a decision has been made Personality * A relatively stable set of feelings and behaviors that have been significantly formed by genetic and environmental factors * The relationship between behavior and personality is one of the most complex matters that managers have to understand * Set of characteristics that underlie a relatively stable p attern of behavior in response to ideas, objects, or people in the environment * Some Major Forces influencing Personality 1. Cultural forces 2. Social class/group membership forces 3. Hereditary forces 4. Family relationship forces PERSONALITY AND BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS The Big Five Personality Dimensions 1. Extroversion 2. Agreeableness 3. Conscientiousness 4. Emotional Stability 5. Openness to Experience How to Identify the Big Five Personality Traits * Extraversion * An extravert is talkative, comfortable, and confident in interpersonal relationships; an introvert is more private, withdrawn and reserved. * Agreeableness An agreeable person is trusting, courteous and helpful, getting along well with others; a disagreeable person is self-serving, skeptical and tough, creating discomfort for others. * Conscientiousness * A conscientious person is dependable, organized, and focused on getting things done; a person who lacks conscientiousness is careless, impulsive, and not achievement oriented. * Emotional Stability * A person who is emotionally stable is secu re, calm, steady, and self-confident; a person lacking emotional stability is excitable, anxious, nervous, and tense. Openness to Experience * A person open to experience is broad-minded, imaginative, and open to new ideas; a person who lacks openness is narrow-minded, has few interests, and resists change. * Authoritarianism * the degree to which a person defers to authority and accepts status differences. * Machiavellianism * the degree to which someone uses power manipulatively. * Locus of control * the extent to which one believes that what happens is within one’s control. * Self-monitoring * the degree to which someone is able to adjust behavior in response to xternal factors. Emotional Intelligence (EQ) Basic Components * Self-awareness: basis for all other components, being aware of what you are feeling * Self-management: control disruptive or harmful emotions and balance one’s moods so they do not cloud thinking * Social awareness: understand others and practic e empathy * Relationship awareness: connect to others, build positive relationships, respond to emotions of others, and influence others Locus of Control * Locus of control of individuals – Determines the degree to which they believe their behaviors influence what happens to them * Internals – believe they are masters of their own fate * Externals – believe they are helpless pawns of fate, success is due to luck or ease of task * Tendency to place primary responsibility for one’s success or failure either within oneself (internally) or on outside forces (externally) * Internal locus of control- your actions influence what happens to you * External locus of control- represents pawns of fate Self-Efficacy Feelings of self-efficacy have managerial and organizational implications: * Selection decisions * Training programs * Goal setting and performance Behaviors Influenced by Personality Authoritarianism = belief that power and status differences should exist within the organization * Machiavellianism = tendency to direct much of one’s behavior toward the acquisition of power and the manipulation of other people for personal gain Individual Differences: Values and Personality ————————————————- LEARNING OBJECTIVES . Understand what values are. 2. Describe the link between values and individual behavior. 3. Identify the major personality traits that are relevant to organizational behavior. 4. Explain the link between personality, work behavior, and work attitudes. 5. Explain the potential pitfalls of personality testing. Values Values  refer to stable life goals that people have, reflecting what is most important to them. Values are established throughout one’s life as a result of the accumulating life experiences and tend to be relatively stable. 138]  The values that are important to people tend to affect the types of decisions they make, how they perceive their environment, and their actual behaviors. Moreover, people are more likely to accept job offers when the company possesses the values people care about. [139]  Value attainment is one reason why people stay in a company, and when an organization does not help them attain their values, they are more likely to decide to leave if they are dissatisfied with the job itself. [140] What are the values people care about? There are many typologies of values. One of the most established surveys to assess individual values is the Rokeach Value Survey. [141]  This survey lists 18 terminal and 18 instrumental values in alphabetical order. Terminal values  refer to end states people desire in life, such as leading a prosperous life and a world at peace. Instrumental values  deal with views on acceptable modes of conduct, such as being honest and ethical, and being ambitious. According to Rokeach, values are arranged in hierarchical fashion. In other words, an accurate way of assessing someone’s values is to ask them to rank the 36 values in order of importance. By comparing these values, people develop a sense of which value can be sacrificed to achieve the other, and the individual priority of each value emerges. Where do values come from? Research indicates that they are shaped early in life and show stability over the course of a lifetime. Early family experiences are important influences over the dominant values. People who were raised in families with low socioeconomic status and those who experienced restrictive parenting often display conformity values when they are adults, while those who were raised by parents who were cold toward their children would likely alue and desire security. [142] Values of a generation also change and evolve in response to the historical context that the generation grows up in. Research comparing the values of different generations resulted in interesting findings. For example, Generation Xers (those born between the mid-1960s and 1980s) are more individualistic and are interested in working toward organi zational goals so long as they coincide with their personal goals. This group, compared to the baby boomers (born between the 1940s and 1960s), is also less likely to see work as central to their life and more likely to desire a quick promotion. 143] Values will affect the choices people make. For example, someone who has a strong stimulation orientation may pursue extreme sports and be drawn to risky business ventures with a high potential for payoff. The values a person holds will affect his or her employment. For example, someone who has an orientation toward strong stimulation may pursue extreme sports and select an occupation that involves fast action and high risk, such as fire fighter, police officer, or emergency medical doctor. Someone who has a drive for achievement may more readily act as an entrepreneur. Moreover, whether individuals will be satisfied at a given job may depend on whether the job provides a way to satisfy their dominant values. Therefore, understanding employees at work requires understanding the value orientations of employees. Personality Personality  encompasses the relatively stable feelings, thoughts, and behavioral patterns a person has. Our personality differentiates us from other people, and understanding someone’s personality gives us clues about how that person is likely to act and feel in a variety of situations. In order to effectively manage organizational behavior, an understanding of different employees’ personalities is helpful. Having this knowledge is also useful for placing people in jobs and organizations. If personality is stable, does this mean that it does not change? You probably remember how you have changed and evolved as a result of your own life experiences, attention you received in early childhood, the style of parenting you were exposed to, successes and failures you had in high school, and other life events. In fact, our personality changes over long periods of time. For example, we tend to become more socially dominant, more conscientious (organized and dependable), and more emotionally stable between the ages of 20 and 40, whereas openness to new experiences may begin to decline during this same time. [144]  In other words, even though we treat personality as relatively stable, changes occur. Moreover, even in childhood, our personality shapes who we are and has lasting consequences for us. For example, studies show that part of our career success and job satisfaction later in life can be explained by our childhood personality. 145] Is our behavior in organizations dependent on our personality? To some extent, yes, and to some extent, no. While we will discuss the effects of personality for employee behavior, you must remember that the relationships we describe are modest correlations. For example, having a sociable and outgoing personality may encourage people to seek friends and prefer social situations. This does not mean that their person ality will immediately affect their work behavior. At work, we have a job to do and a role to perform. Therefore, our behavior may be more strongly affected by what is expected of us, as opposed to how we want to behave. When people have a lot of freedom at work, their personality will become a stronger influence over their behavior. [146] Big Five Personality Traits How many personality traits are there? How do we even know? In every language, there are many words describing a person’s personality. In fact, in the English language, more than 15,000 words describing personality have been identified. When researchers analyzed the terms describing personality characteristics, they realized that there were many words that were pointing to each dimension of personality. When these words were grouped, five dimensions seemed to emerge that explain a lot of the variation in our personalities. [147]  Keep in mind that these five are not necessarily the only traits out there. There are other, specific traits that represent dimensions not captured by the Big Five. Still, understanding the main five traits gives us a good start for describing personality. A summary of the Big Five traits is presented in  Figure  3. , â€Å"Big Five Personality Traits†. Openness  is the degree to which a person is curious, original, intellectual, creative, and open to new ideas. People high in openness seem to thrive in situations that require being flexible and learning new things. They are highly motivated to learn new skills, and they do well in training settings. [148]  They also have a n advantage when they enter into a new organization. Their open-mindedness leads them to seek a lot of information and feedback about how they are doing and to build relationships, which leads to quicker adjustment to the new job. 149]When supported, they tend to be creative. [150]  Open people are highly adaptable to change, and teams that experience unforeseen changes in their tasks do well if they are populated with people high in openness. [151]  Compared to people low in openness, they are also more likely to start their own business. [152] Conscientiousness  refers to the degree to which a person is organized, systematic, punctual, achievement oriented, and dependable. Conscientiousness is the one personality trait that uniformly predicts how high a person’s performance will be, across a variety of occupations and jobs. 153]  In fact, conscientiousness is the trait most desired by recruiters and results in the most success in interviews. [154]  This is not a s urprise, because in addition to their high performance, conscientious people have higher levels of motivation to perform, lower levels of turnover, lower levels of absenteeism, and higher levels of safety performance at work. [155]One’s conscientiousness is related to career success and being satisfied with one’s career over time. [156]  Finally, it seems that conscientiousness is a good trait to have for entrepreneurs. Highly conscientious people are more likely to start their own business compared to those who are not conscientious, and their firms have longer survival rates. [157] Extraversion  is the degree to which a person is outgoing, talkative, and sociable, and enjoys being in social situations. One of the established findings is that they tend to be effective in jobs involving sales. [158]  Moreover, they tend to be effective as managers and they demonstrate inspirational leadership behaviors. [159]  Extraverts do well in social situations, and as a result they tend to be effective in job interviews. Part of their success comes from how they prepare for the job interview, as they are likely to use their social network. [160]  Extraverts have an easier time than introverts when adjusting to a new job. They actively seek information and feedback, and build effective relationships, which helps with their adjustment. [161]Interestingly, extraverts are also found to be happier at work, which may be because of the relationships they build with the people around them and their relative ease in adjusting to a new job. 162]  However, they do not necessarily perform well in all jobs, and jobs depriving them of social interaction may be a poor fit. Moreover, they are not necessarily model employees. For example, they tend to have higher levels of absenteeism at work, potentially because they may miss work to hang out with or attend to the needs of their friends. [163] Agreeableness  is the degree to which a person is nice, tolerant, sensitive, trusting, kind, and warm. In other words, people who are high in agreeableness are likeable people who get along with others. Not surprisingly, agreeable people help others at work consistently, and this helping behavior is not dependent on being in a good mood. [164]  They are also less likely to retaliate when other people treat them unfairly. [165]  This may reflect their ability to show empathy and give people the benefit of the doubt. Agreeable people may be a valuable addition to their teams and may be effective leaders because they create a fair environment when they are in leadership positions. [166]  At the other end of the spectrum, people low in agreeableness are less likely to show these positive behaviors. Moreover, people who are not agreeable are shown to quit their jobs unexpectedly, perhaps in response to a conflict they engage with a boss or a peer. [167]  If agreeable people are so nice, does this mean that we should only look for agreeable people when hiring? Some jobs may actually be a better fit for someone with a low level of agreeableness. Think about it: When hiring a lawyer, would you prefer a kind and gentle person, or a pit bull? Also, high agreeableness has a downside: Agreeable people are less likely to engage in constructive and change-oriented communication. 168]  Disagreeing with the status quo may create conflict and agreeable people will likely avoid creating such conflict, missing an opportunity for constructive change. Neuroticism  refers to the degree to which a person is anxious, irritable, aggressive, temperamental, and moody. These people have a tendency to have emotional adjustment problems and experience stress and depression on a habitual basis. Peo ple very high in neuroticism experience a number of problems at work. For example, they are less likely to be someone people go to for advice and friendship. 169]  In other words, they may experience relationship difficulties. They tend to be habitually unhappy in their jobs and report high intentions to leave, but they do not necessarily actually leave their jobs. [170]  Being high in neuroticism seems to be harmful to one’s career, as they have lower levels of career success (measured with income and occupational status achieved in one’s career). Finally, if they achieve managerial jobs, they tend to create an unfair climate at work. [171] Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Aside from the Big Five personality traits, perhaps the most well-known and most often used personality assessment is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Unlike the Big Five, which assesses traits, MBTI measures types. Assessments of the Big Five do not classify people as neurotic or extravert: It is all a matter of degrees. MBTI on the other hand, classifies people as one of 16 types. [172]  In MBTI, people are grouped using four dimensions. Based on how a person is classified on these four dimensions, it is possible to talk about 16 unique personality types, such as ESTJ and ISTP. MBTI was developed in 1943 by a mother–daughter team, Isabel Myers and Katherine Cook Briggs. Its objective at the time was to aid World War II veterans in identifying the occupation that would suit their personalities. Since that time, MBTI has become immensely popular, and according to one estimate, around 2. 5 million people take the test annually. The survey is criticized because it relies on types as opposed to traits, but organizations who use the survey find it very useful for training and team-building purposes. More than eighty of the  Fortune  100 companies used Myers-Briggs tests in some form. One distinguishing characteristic of this test is that it is explicitly designed for learning, not for employee selection purposes. In fact, the Myers & Briggs Foundation has strict guidelines against the use of the test for employee selection. Instead, the test is used to provide mutual understanding within the team and to gain a better understanding of the working styles of team members. [173] Positive and Negative Affectivity You may have noticed that behavior is also a function of moods. When people are in a good mood, they may be more cooperative, smile more, and act friendly. When these same people are in a bad mood, they may have a tendency to be picky, irritable, and less tolerant of different opinions. Yet, some people seem to be in a good mood most of the time, and others seem to be in a bad mood most of the time regardless of what is actually going on in their lives. This distinction is manifested by positive and negative affectivity traits. Positive affective people  experience positive moods more frequently, whereas  negative affective peopleexperience negative moods with greater frequency. Negative affective people focus on the â€Å"glass half empty† and experience more anxiety and nervousness. [174]  Positive affective people tend to be happier at work,[175]  and their happiness spreads to the rest of the work environment. As may be expected, this personality trait sets the tone in the work atmosphere. When a team comprises mostly negative affective people, there tend to be fewer instances of helping and cooperation. Teams dominated by positive affective people experience lower levels of absenteeism. 176]  When people with a lot of power are also high in positive affectivity, the work environment is affected in a positive manner and can lead to greater levels of cooperation and finding mutually agreeable solutions to problems. [177] Self-Monitoring Self-monitoring  refers to the extent to which a person is capable of monitoring his or her actions and appearance in social situations. In other words, people who are social monitors are social chameleons w ho understand what the situation demands and act accordingly, while low social monitors tend to act the way they feel. 178]  High social monitors are sensitive to the types of behaviors the social environment expects from them. Their greater ability to modify their behavior according to the demands of the situation and to manage their impressions effectively is a great advantage for them. [179]  In general, they tend to be more successful in their careers. They are more likely to get cross-company promotions, and even when they stay with one company, they are more likely to advance. [180]  Social monitors also become the â€Å"go to† person in their company and they enjoy central positions in their social networks. 181]  They are rated as higher performers, and emerge as leaders. [182]  While they are effective in influencing other people and get things done by managing their impressions, this personality trait has some challenges that need to be addressed. First, w hen evaluating the performance of other employees, they tend to be less accurate. It seems that while trying to manage their impressions, they may avoid giving accurate feedback to their subordinates to avoid confrontations. [183]  This tendency may create problems for them if they are managers. Second, high social monitors tend to experience higher levels of tress, probably caused by behaving in ways that conflict with their true feelings. In situations that demand positive emotions, they may act happy although they are not feeling happy, which puts an emotional burden on them. Finally, high social monitors tend to be less committed to their companies. They may see their jobs as a stepping-stone for greater things, which may prevent them from forming strong attachments and loyalty to their current employer. [184] Proactive Personality Proactive personality  refers to a person’s inclination to fix what is perceived as wrong, change the status quo, and use initiative to so lve problems. Instead of waiting to be told what to do, proactive people take action to initiate meaningful change and remove the obstacles they face along the way. In general, having a proactive personality has a number of advantages for these people. For example, they tend to be more successful in their job searches. [185]  They are also more successful over the course of their careers, because they use initiative and acquire greater understanding of the politics within the organization. [186]  Proactive people are valuable assets to their companies because they may have higher levels of performance. 187]They adjust to their new jobs quickly because they understand the political environment better and often make friends more quickly. [188]  Proactive people are eager to learn and engage in many developmental activities to improve their skills. [189]  Despite all their potential, under some circumstances a proactive personality may be a liability for an individual or an organization. Imag ine a person who is proactive but is perceived as being too pushy, trying to change things other people are not willing to let go, or using their initiative to make decisions that do not serve a company’s best interests. Research shows that the success of proactive people depends on their understanding of a company’s core values, their ability and skills to perform their jobs, and their ability to assess situational demands correctly. [190] Self-Esteem Self-esteem  is the degree to which a person has overall positive feelings about his or herself. People with high self-esteem view themselves in a positive light, are confident, and respect themselves. On the other hand, people with low self-esteem experience high levels of self-doubt and uestion their self-worth. High self-esteem is related to higher levels of satisfaction with one’s job and higher levels of performance on the job. [191]  People with low self-esteem are attracted to situations in which they will be relatively invisible, such as large companies. [192]Managing employees with low self-esteem may be challenging at times, because negative feedback given with the intention to improve performance may be viewed as a judgment on their worth as an employee. Therefore, effectively managing employees with relatively low self-esteem requires tact and providing lots of positive feedback when discussing performance incidents. Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy  is a belief that one can perform a specific task successfully. Research shows that the belief that we can do something is a good predictor of whether we can actually do it. Self-efficacy is different from other personality traits in that it is job specific. You may have high self-efficacy in being successful academically, but low self-efficacy in relation to your ability to fix your car. At the same time, people have a certain level of generalized self-efficacy and they have the belief that whatever task or hobby they tackle, they are likely to be successful in it. Research shows that self-efficacy at work is related to job performance. [193]  This relationship is probably a result of people with high self-efficacy setting higher goals for themselves and being more committed to these goals, whereas people with low self-efficacy tend to procrastinate. [194]  Academic self-efficacy is a good predictor of your GPA, whether you persist in your studies, or drop out of college. 195] Is there a way of increasing employees’ self-efficacy? Hiring people who are capable of performing their tasks and training people to increase their self-efficacy may be effective. Some people may also respond well to verbal encouragement. By showing that you believe they can be successful and effectively playing the role of a cheerleader, you may be able to increase self-efficacy. G iving people opportunities to test their skills so that they can see what they are capable of doing (or empowering them) is also a good way of increasing self-efficacy. 196] Locus of Control Locus of control deals with the degree to which people feel accountable for their own behaviors. Individuals with high  internal locus of control  believe that they control their own destiny and what happens to them is their own doing, while those with high  external locus of control  feel that things happen to them because of other people, luck, or a powerful being. Internals feel greater control over their own lives and therefore they act in ways that will increase their chances of success. For example, they take the initiative to start mentor-protege relationships. They are more involved with their jobs. They demonstrate higher levels of motivation and have more positive experiences at work. [197]  Interestingly, internal locus is also related to one’s subjective well-being and happiness in life, while being high in external locus is related to a higher rate of depression. [198]  The connection between internal locus of control and health is interesting, but perhaps not surprising. In fact, one study showed that having internal locus of control at the age of ten was related to a number of health outcomes, such as lower obesity and lower blood pressure later in life. [199]  It is possible that internals take more responsibility for their health and adopt healthier habits, while externals may see less of a connection between how they live and their health. Internals thrive in contexts in which they have the ability to influence their own behavior. Successful entrepreneurs tend to have high levels of internal locus of control. [200] Key point: Values and personality traits are two dimensions on which people differ. Values are stable life goals. When seeking jobs, employees are more likely to accept a job that provides opportunities for value attainment, and they are more likely to remain in situations that satisfy their values. Personality comprises the stable feelings, thoughts, and behavioral patterns people have. The Big Five personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) are important traits that seem to be stable and can be generalized to other cultures. Other important traits for work behavior include self-efficacy, self-esteem, social monitoring, proactive personality, positive and negative affectivity, and locus of control. It is important to remember that a person’s behavior depends on the match between the person and the situation. While personality is a strong influence on job attitudes, its relation to job performance is weaker. Some companies use personality testing to screen out candidates. This method has certain limitations, and companies using personality tests

Imperialism and Manhood Essay

Study question 1. 2. 3. To Roosevelt, the idea of race suicide was closely interlinked to manhood. Not only would the American men face competition from immigrant workers and be unable to provide for more children: thus leading to an excess of inferior immigrants but the American man would also be related to the impotent American man, unable to create more children. This would lead to the race’s elimination Race and Immigration 1. It allowed individuals to distinguish and separate themselves from immigrants thus creating a barrier that showed them as undesirable. 2. Certain policies and laws were created to separate the Chinese from other groups: Chinese Exclusion Act. 3. This act set a precedent on the treatment of other foreigners that would enter America. Urban Politics and Culture 1. It is preferable to have a community that has a degree of refinement than to live in one that is full of poverty. 2. The wealth should be divided amongst the immediate family to a degree that does not surpass them into leading unfulfilling and lazy lives. The rest should be distributed for the benefit of society. 1. Having undergone poverty himself, Riles shows stereotypes but presents them in an entertaining way to the audience. Also he mentions the roles these different cultures play in merging with the American way of life. 2. Riis and Carnegie are similar in their opinion that the poor exist and cannot be ignored but it is only the rich who can provide them with relief. Cultural Encounters in the Far West 1. The Bison went into extinction because of the cold and droughts bought in by the changing environment and human influence which resulted in colonial expansion that bought in new diseases and animals. 2. It was not the nomads alone who hunted the bison. They sold the animals to the Euro-American invaders. 1. Blacks could not vote unless their grandfathers had not been voters before the Civil War, literacy tests had to be passed, fees was charged for voting and democrats (always white individuals) were the only ones allowed to vote. 2. The South contained individuals who had the deepest hatred for the blacks which led the lynching in this area to be the worst. 3. Separate schools, hospitals, accommodations and even entrances were given to the two groups. Often enough the blacks were provided no facilities by certain states. 4. They decided to test out the marginzalation itself by acts like the one committed by Homer A Plessy Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia Website 1. Minstrels would perform music with black faced performers in the quest to ridicule black people. Also caricatures were made which were printed in novels and plays. 2. Churches taught that blacks were inferior. Politicians gave speeches supporting segregation and writers also wrote against the black man.

Warm Occlusions - Occluded Fronts - Types of Fronts

Warm Occlusions - Occluded Fronts - Types of Fronts A warm air occlusion or occluded front is less common than a cold occlusion. A warm occlusion occurs as cool air moves rapidly into an area with an existing warm front. The difference from a cold occlusion is that the approaching cool air is not as cold as the retreating cold air in the existing front. In other words, the fast-moving, incoming air is cold, but not as cold as the air mass ahead of it. Precipitation can usually be expected when an occluded front passes through an area. Whats an Occluded Front? Sometimes a cold front will catch up to a warm front and overtake both it and the cooler air out ahead of it. If this happens, an occluded front is born. Occluded fronts get their name from the fact that when the cold air pushes underneath the warm air, it lifts the warm air up from the ground, which makes it hidden, or occluded.   Occluded fronts usually form with mature  low-pressure areas. They act like both warm and cold fronts. The symbol for an occluded front is  a purple line with alternating triangles and semi-circles (also purple)  pointing in the direction the front is moving. Sometimes a cold front will catch up to a warm front and overtake both it and the cooler air out ahead of it. If this happens, an occluded front is born. Occluded fronts get their name from the fact that when the cold air pushes underneath the warm air, it lifts the warm air up from the ground, which makes it hidden, or occluded.   Updated by Tiffany Means

Women in Psychology- Florence Denmark

Women in Psychology- Florence Denmark Free Online Research Papers Psychology is a young science in and of itself. Women in psychology have only been credited for significant contributions for the last 150 years or so. Although there have been many women who have paved the way for future female generations in the field of psychology, Frances Denmark has not only contributed significantly in the past, she continues to do so today. Florence Levin Denmark was born on January 28, 1931 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Her father, Morris Levin was an attorney, and her mother Minna, was a musician. Florence grew up living with her older sister, her grandparents, aunts, and uncles. Florence credits her mother for helping her succeed in her accomplishments. Florence was an A student, in the honor society, and graduated as class valedictorian in 1948. She wrote the sports column for her high school newspaper. Florence considered it as a career, but felt discouraged by the lack of jobs available for women in the field at the time (Weiss, 2008). Florence went to the Womens College of the University of Pennsylvania. She majored in history at first. She became interested in psychology when she took an introductory class. Florence later became a double major. She was accepted into Phi Beta Kappa. Her history thesis was on Amelia Bloomer, and her psychology thesis was on research she did on gender and leadership styles. In 1952, she graduated with honors in both departments. She was the first student at the college to receive honors in two majors (Psi Chi, 2009). In 1953, she began graduate school at the University of Pennsylvania. She earned an A.M. in psychology, and a Ph.D. in social psychology in 1958. After graduate school, Florence moved to New York City. She took a position at the Queens College of the City University of New York as an adjunct professor. CUNY had a counseling center, and Florence worked there as well. It was during this time that Florence began studies with her colleague Marcia Guttentag. They did work in areas like the effects of college on women, effects of psychiatric labeling of immigrants, and the effects of racial integration in preschool programs (Weiss, 2008). Being a student of psychology in the 1950s, Denmark was highly influenced by the Freudian psychoanalytic perspective of the time. However, in more recent years she has also taken a cognitive approach to helping to heal abused women and children (Weiss, 2008). Often the victims in these scenarios feel as though they cannot leave the situation and somehow they feel they deserve the treatment to begin with. With behavioral-cognitive therapy, clients are taught to see things in a new light; therefore they are able to change the way they think about them and the way they react to them. At Queen’s College, Mary Reuder became a mentor who facilitated her involvement and development as a teacher. In 1964, after six years post-doctoral experience, Florence obtained a faculty position as instructor at Hunter College in the Bronx. At both Queens and Hunter, Florence experienced the discrimination against women that was typical in academia at the time: lower pay and lower rank. Nevertheless, Florence remained at Hunter where she continued her research on the psychology of women and sex roles. Her hard work and accomplishment led to her being named to a distinguished professorship at Thomas Hunter Professor of the Social Sciences in 1984. At Hunter, Florence met her other major mentor, Virginia Staudt Sexton. Sexton mentored Florence through all the political ropes of how to be an effective leader in organizations. Out of this mentoring experience, Florence became a leader on the state, national, and international levels, leadership that she maintains to this day. S he has been president of the New York State Psychological Association, the American Psychological Association, Division 35 of the APA, and the International Council of Psychologists. Her research on women produced a number of significant publications, including the Hunter College Women’s Studies Collective, which published the seminal, Women’s Choices, Women’s Realties (1983), now in its second edition. Florence has also contributed to and edited several psychology texts over the years (Weiss, 2008). Florence L. Denmark is a Robert Pace Distinguished Research Professor and adjunct professor at the graduate school in the City University of New York. She is a fellow of 13 divisions of the APA. She has received awards for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology in the public interest and the APA Gold Medal Award for lifetime achievement (Psi Chi, 2009). Florence is a big advocate on many women’s issues, the most prevalent being the victimization regarding violent acts on women and children. She has written many articles and books on the subject and is considered an authority on women’s psychological issues (Weiss, 2008) Florence is considered to be the pioneer in the psychology of women. With her leadership, psychology of women became a respected and well-recognized field of study. Her research became the guideline of new programs popping up in colleges across the country. Denmark documented cases of discrimination and the disadvantaged status of women in psychology. Florence wrote many papers on the role of women in the history of psychology, so their many contributions would not be forgotten. In 1975, she and Julia Sherman chaired the first conference on psychological research on women. Florence worked on such topics as racial integration in preschool, and the effects of college on women. She developed curriculum on the psychology of women. Denmark was, in fact, the first to integrate psychology of women in introductory psychology courses. In 1983, she published the first widely used textbook called Womens Choices, Womens Realities. Her research has fueled many psychology departments to create a psychology of women curriculum. Florence was successful in convincing the American Psychological Association to create its 35th division-the Psychology of Women (1973). In 1969, she helped to found the Association for Women in Psychology. In 1976, she served as an editor to the Psychology of Women Quarterly. Florence also helped edit the journal Sex Roles (Psi Chi, 2009). In 1981, Florence established the International Interdisciplinary Congress on Women in Israel. She continued to serve on the congress board, and in 1990, Hunter College was chosen as the next site. From 198 0 to 1981, Florence Denmark served as the APAs fifth woman president. At this time she also served as president of Psi Chi, the psychology honor society. Her presidencies led to cooperation between the two organizations. She advocated increased support of ethnic minorities and women. An APA convention symposium was devoted to autobiographical presentations by eminent women psychologists. From 1971 to 1984 Florence served as an associated editor for the International Journal of Group Tensions. From 1985 to 1988, she was on the committee for Lesbian and Gay Concerns. Florence Denmark has received many awards and honorary degrees for her numerous contributions in every area she worked. The APAs committee on women in psychology gave her its Distinguished Leader Award. She was recognized in 1983 as APA division 35s Outstanding Leader. In 1986, she received the Association of Women Psychologists Distinguished Career Award for her contributions to mentoring, policy, and scholarship. In 1980, the Association for Women in Science recognized her as an Outstanding Woman in Science. The limitless contributions of Frances L. Denmark to the field of psychology in general are enough to put her in the history books. The fact that she did it in a time when women were struggling to earn a place in science and psychology makes it even more monumental. Denmark continues to teach, tour colleges and speak on women’s issues, and make significant contributions to both society and psychology today. References Psi Chi. (2009). Florence L. Denmark Accomplishments. Retrieved December 13, 2009, from The International Honor Society in Psychology: psichi.org/pubs/eye/vol_7/denmark.aspx Weiss, A. (2008). Florence Denmark. Retrieved December 13, 2009, from About.com: http://womenshistory.about.com/gi/o.htm?zi=1/XJ/YazTi=1sdn=womenshistorycdn=educationtm=120gps=141_376_1020_560f=00tt=14bt=1bts=1zu=http%3A//www.webster.edu/%7Ewoolflm/florencedenmark.html . Research Papers on Women in Psychology- Florence DenmarkThree Concepts of PsychodynamicPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenTrailblazing by Eric AndersonHip-Hop is ArtBook Review on The Autobiography of Malcolm XStandardized Testing19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraThe Fifth HorsemanInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married Males

How to Grow a Salt Crystal Garden

How to Grow a Salt Crystal Garden A salt crystal garden produces a tree of white or colored crystals. Learn how to grow a salt crystal garden using a paper towel or toilet paper tube and a salt crystal solution. Salt Crystal Garden Materials toilet paper tube or about 4 of a paper towel tube3 tablespoons household ammonia3 tablespoons iron(III) ferrocyanide solution1 tablespoon table salt The iron(III) ferrocyanide solution may be made by suspending the powdered chemical in water or you may use Prussian Blue artist pigment, diluted to produce a deep blue-colored liquid, or you can use Mrs. Stewarts Laundry Bluing (find online). Grow a Salt Crystal Garden Stir the salt crystal ingredients together in the bottom of a shallow dish.Set the paper tube in the center of the dish. If you like, you can cut the tube to resemble a tree. The salt crystals will be white, so if you want colored crystals, dot the paper tube with food coloring or color it with a water-soluble marker.Place the salt crystal garden somewhere it wont be bumped or disturbed. Over the course of a few hours, the liquid will move up the tube and start growing crystals. Crystals will continue to grow for a day or more or you can add more solution if you want to continue crystal growth for a week or two.

Managing Change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Managing Change - Essay Example With change always altering the functionality of organizations, Todnem (2005) proposes the eight step model in an effort to employ change in the association. According to Todnem (2005), this begins with the creation of a sense of urgency for the need for change in the organization that needs to motivate the employees to heed to the crisis that is present in the organization. Change is resultant from a myriad of factors such as proper customer relations, competition with the existing business persons amongst others. After the identification of the change factors, it is the role of the management to come up with a team that would see the implementation of the policies put in place. Next in line should be coming up with a vision that underlies the functionality of the change by the employees, and then communication of the vision must be upheld. Todnem (2005) continues to argue that the process cannot be successful without empowering the employees to overcome the obstacles to change. Sub sequently, the management must come up with methodologies for exulting the accomplishments so as to motivate the employees towards further changes in the organization. Finally, the change can only be of utility through stamping the adopted changes to the culture of the organizations. The example of Wal-Mart can be described as a good example of change well accepted in the company. In as much the company faced a lot of resistance from its employees due to low wages and denial to join the labor union, the management has been making tangible decisions that would see implementation of the company’s decisions. The management has seen the inclusion of employees in improving their skills. According to the founder of the company, Mr. Walton, empowered employees are the major change agents in the organization. In this case, the employers endeavoured to train its employees, after that listened to their suggestions that allowed the company implement the set objectives. In this case, the company has managed to deal with to instil in the workers, the slogan that all is possible with the motivation of the employees. The management has also managed to come up with new technology that has seen the employees have an easier time whilst dealing with the pressures in the company. These programs and moves by the management can be credited to the reasons behind the success of the Wal-Mart stores over decades, due to an established organizational culture (Tcherpokov, 2006). References Tcherpokov, M., 2006. The Eight-stage Managing Process of Major Change. A Quality Management Perspective. [Pdf]. Available at: http://www.freequality.org/documents/knowledge/ManageChange_MiniTutorial_MT%20_2_.pdf. [Accessed on March 29th 2012]. Todnem, R., 2005. Organisational Change Management: A Critical Review. Journal of Change Management, Vol. 5, No. 4, 369–380. Reflective Journal 2 Week 13 The case of the NHS is another example that has led to a study of the need for change in the o rganizations. In light to the NHS case, a lot of changes have been witnessed. The inclusion of the National Health Service in the quest to reduce the costs of delivery of health services can be described as a fallacy that created a situation whereby the consumer spent a lot of money to access the services. With the government aiming at reducing the costs a lot of individuals have incurred whilst accessing healthcare,

Company case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Company - Case Study Example Integrated Marketing Communications- the company prudently integrates its multiple communication channels/components of the proportional mix to deliver definite, consistent and compelling company brand and messages. a) Advertising- Pepsi’s campaign has used non-person presentation and promotion of ideas, goods and services. For instance, is has used sponsors such as Hulu to advertise in its renown TV show. Besides, it also broadcasts, uses internet and print adverts in the magazines. Besides, it makes use of social media such as Facebook and Twitter, Spot advertisements on main network channels and various reality TV shows. d) Public relations- Pepsi established an overall good rapport with the general public by earning favor from the public. For instance, it used sponsorship, created recreational events and also through the company’s website. e) Direct Marketing- the company used emails, cell phones and mail to communicate and establish direct connections with individual customers. For instance, Pepsi employed the use of digital media to directly communicate with consumers. The target audience for Pepsi was a youthful generation mostly composed of teenagers and young adults. This implies that the campaign targeted the Generation Y consumers who were born between 1980’s and 2000’s. Pepsi’s slogans have a clear description of the fun, cheerfulness and living life to the fullest. The Campaign is consistent with the audience due to its heavy use of social media such as Facebook and Twitter. It is beyond doubt that most teenagers and young adults use social media and this is therefore the most appropriate way of reaching them. b) Determining the objective of communication- once the target audience has been established, the next step is for the marketing director to identify what response is sought. The communication objective for

Week 7 Hand-In Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Week 7 Hand-In - Assignment Example By such restriction the data will remain consistent or in other words it will be independent of the programs using it. The concept of data independence helps to improve the maintenance and management of database in single user environment (Wisegeek, 2011). End users, usually those who have no or very little knowledge about computers take advantage of application software (Toolbox, 2008). While on the other hand, database can be created, maintained or modified by its users through database management system. There are numerous advantages in separating the application software from database management system. One of the foremost advantages is better load balancing which means that different machines can be used for application software and database management system. This increases the overall efficiency of the entire system. Another advantage of separation of application software from the database management system is that it results in making the entire system more secure. This increase in security is necessary because end users are in contact with application software and in the database very important data is stored. Even very little change in the database can result in major faults and failures (Ramirez, 2000). Answer: Programmers or designers of database management system are not responsible to check vacancy on each flight. The user who is concerned with flight 243 will perform this operation and will check this vacancy. The user will enter into the application software to see the availability of flights. When he will click on the flight number 243 then it will be checked in the database that is there any seat in the flight available. Answer: A relation is a term which deals with database. At the time of designing of database management system it must be decided that how database entities, relations, tables etc within a database must be stored. Therefore, it is responsibility of designer of DBMS software to perform the operation

Scrabble Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Scrabble - Essay Example Matt Graham is a thirty two year old. He works in the comedy industry where he is a standup comedian. His mode of dressing of dressing is actually shabby. As Fatsis (2001) states, he wears flannel shirts that he does not button over old T-shirts. The jeans that he puts on are torn and do not fit him well. When he speaks, he speaks so fast that it seems his mind is running ahead of his thoughts. Matt is an individual who does not care much about his health. This is showed by the amount of pills that he takes each day. He has a five by seven card which he has divided into two columns. In one column, he has written the names of twenty pills which he takes in the morning on an empty. In the other column, he has written seventeen more that he has to take with breakfast. He does not care of the warnings indicated on the labels. Rather, he claims that they turn him around more than anything. He also has a damaged knee which pains him much but he refuses to see an orthopedist to check out th e issue. This supports the point that he does not care much about his health (Fatsis, 2011). According to Fatsis (2001), Matt is affected by insomnia. It is indicated that he does not sleep much. Especially on the night before the day when Matt shall play a best of five games against an opponent to find out the world Scrabble champion. The eating habits of Matt are quite out of order. On this particular morning, Matt does not eat much. Matt also chooses not to relax as opposed to the notion that a moment of relaxation and reflection before a very important game is needed. It seems that Matt has very peculiar ways of going about his time and actions before the finals. This peculiar ways may be as a result of the consumption of pills. It is suggested that if Matt is tested for drugs, then he would actually be banned for life. But Matt is lucky as drugs are not tested

Body Mass Index Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Body Mass Index - Research Paper Example A BMI value that is above 30 suggests that a person is obese (Brownell & Puhl, 2005). Obesity has been identified as a major cause for concern with respect to discrimination, which has been observed in various aspects of people’s everyday life. This paper seeks to highlight and discuss instances in people’s lives, which are affected by discrimination based on obesity. Various research studies that have been conducted to investigate whether bias against obese individuals led to discrimination in various aspects of people’s everyday life. Findings from research studies have established that there exists a stereotype against obese people, in society. This stereotype is based on the negative attributes that have been pegged on their characters and appearance. One such research study was able to establish that there existed discrimination in the work place, especially when it came to hiring, promotion and remuneration (Brownell & Puhl, 2005). The findings from this research illustrated that there was bias, which evolved to discrimination of obese individuals in all aspects of employment and workplace practice. Obese people have been found to experience discrimination in the health care sector where doctors have prejudice over obese patients. This discrimination and negative stereotyping has led to a decline in the quality of health care that obese individuals receive (Brownell & Puhl, 2005). Obese people have also been found to experience discrimination in the education system from its early establishment through to college. This has been blamed for the rising cases of suicides perpetrated by school going children. Discrimination based on obesity has been increasing over the years that it has been leveled with racial discrimination (Brownell & Puhl, 2005). Discrimination based on obesity has been identified as an increasing threat to the wellbeing of the society, but at the same time, it

Scrabble Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Scrabble - Essay Example Matt Graham is a thirty two year old. He works in the comedy industry where he is a standup comedian. His mode of dressing of dressing is actually shabby. As Fatsis (2001) states, he wears flannel shirts that he does not button over old T-shirts. The jeans that he puts on are torn and do not fit him well. When he speaks, he speaks so fast that it seems his mind is running ahead of his thoughts. Matt is an individual who does not care much about his health. This is showed by the amount of pills that he takes each day. He has a five by seven card which he has divided into two columns. In one column, he has written the names of twenty pills which he takes in the morning on an empty. In the other column, he has written seventeen more that he has to take with breakfast. He does not care of the warnings indicated on the labels. Rather, he claims that they turn him around more than anything. He also has a damaged knee which pains him much but he refuses to see an orthopedist to check out th e issue. This supports the point that he does not care much about his health (Fatsis, 2011). According to Fatsis (2001), Matt is affected by insomnia. It is indicated that he does not sleep much. Especially on the night before the day when Matt shall play a best of five games against an opponent to find out the world Scrabble champion. The eating habits of Matt are quite out of order. On this particular morning, Matt does not eat much. Matt also chooses not to relax as opposed to the notion that a moment of relaxation and reflection before a very important game is needed. It seems that Matt has very peculiar ways of going about his time and actions before the finals. This peculiar ways may be as a result of the consumption of pills. It is suggested that if Matt is tested for drugs, then he would actually be banned for life. But Matt is lucky as drugs are not tested

Global Paper and Paper Products Industry Porter's Six Forces Analysis Research

Global and Products Industry Porter's Six Forces Analysis - Research Paper Example Porter’s six forces analysis of the global paper industry would involve certain factors such as threat of new entrants, rivalry among existing firms, threat of substitute products or services, bargaining power of buyers, bargaining power of suppliers and relative power of other stakeholders. The explanations of the factors are given below: Threat of New Entrants Economies of scale The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the global paper industry has increased simultaneously with the growing usage of the paper by its consumers. In certain cases, the usage of papers remains intact where the GDP growth is witnessed to be almost stagnant. The global paper industry produces paper products of $750 billion each year comprising small enterprises globally (Scheihing, 2005). Product Differentiation Product differentiation is one of the most challenging measures of expanding or intensifying a business or industry. With the intense use of internet, the usage of paper is however decreasing day by day and as a result the global paper industry is trying to diversify or differentiate their products and trying to expand their product lines, especially based on the quality aspect (Scheihing, 2005). Capital Requirement A new entrant to the paper industry initially requires around $4.5 Million capital which may be recognized as a demanding level to position themselves in the industry (Scheihing, 2005). Switching Cost The switching cost for the paper industry is low. Therefore, the scope of new entrants is high, as new entrants can any time switch over to another industry if they do not feel competitive in the paper industry incurring minimum cost (Uronen, 2010). ... Capital Requirement A new entrant to the paper industry initially requires around $4.5 Million capital which may be recognized as a demanding level to position themselves in the industry (Scheihing, 2005). Switching Cost The switching cost for the paper industry is low. Therefore, the scope of new entrants is high, as new entrants can any time switch over to another industry if they do not feel competitive in the paper industry incurring minimum cost (Uronen, 2010). Accesses to Distribution Channels The distribution channel of the paper industry comprises of various, dealers, shareholders, retailors, and consumers to serve the ultimate customers in the corporate and educational sectors. Notably, these better facilities to an industry encourage the new entrants to enter the existing market (Uronen, 2010). Cost Disadvantages Independent of Size Due to the high installation cost, and high maintenance cost, the probability of new entrants reduces. However, due to the independence of dete rmining the size of the firms the scope of new entrants rises depicting a moderate level of threat to new entrants (Uronen, 2010). Government In relation to the global paper industry, the government has implemented certain rules and norms, laws, and regulations. In addition, there are many associations who are protesting against paper industry due to the usage of forest products and deforestations (Uronen, 2010). Rivalry among Existing Firms Number of Competitors There are too many paper mills or companies existing within the global paper industry, but the top five existing competitors are Paper Associates PTY.LTD, International Paper Company, Kimberly-Clark de Mexico, Georgia-Pacific LLC and Svenska Cellulosa Aktiebolaget SCA among others (SKC, 2012). Rate of Industry Growth

Analytical Paper The Departed Essay Example for Free

Analytical Paper The Departed Essay The average trip to the theater will indulge the lesser senses, relaxing the mind while also discovering the storyline as the film progresses. When approaching a film with an analytical mindset it is important to have a deeper more developed thought process. Small details within a movie can prove to have extreme importance to the storyline sometimes having multiple meanings. While analytically watching the film The Departed it is apparent that the director Martin Scorsese uses an immense amount of symbolism along with character representation to develop the storyline. The use of animal clothing to represent the alpha male is a use of symbolism within the film that is a reoccurring. Another use of symbolism can be found in the shot of the Massachusetts State Building which entails the desire of a more lawful existence and the shot is also a reoccurring image throughout the film. The question of â€Å"what is loyalty† is a big idea that the director develops with the use of several characters along with meaningful dialogue. In Martin Scorsese’s The Departed the theme of loyalty is expressed along with the symbolism of the state building and animal clothing. In the film The Departed Matt Damon’s character Collin Sullivan infiltrates the Massachusetts State Police department as a detective who is secretly working as an informant for the Irish Mob lead by Frank Costello who is played by Jack Nicolson. Meanwhile Leonardo Dicaprio’s character Billy Costigan is placed in an undercover position within Frank Costello’s crime ring. The two informants are placed in a state of confusion as to their true identity when they become consumed with their double lives. The challenge of uncovering the identity of each other is introduced when both parties, the Police Department and the Irish Mob discover that there is a mole inside their units. Both characters reach a tragic end once their identity is reviled. Throughout the film The Departed the Irish Mob leader Frank Costello is viewed as a dominant character. This idea arises from the ruthlessness that Frank demonstrates in his criminal lifestyle. Committing multiple murders which were done in an extremely horrid manner gives supporting evidence of Frank’s dominance. Having multiple people operating under him shows that he is the leader in that he does not ask for respect he demands it. Like the lion, Frank is the king of his concrete jungle. He has a hand in every criminal occurrence and knows of everything going on in the community around him. If any person in the community rivals Frank in any way he eliminates the threat by any means, keeping him in the highest position of power. People seem to fear Frank for the threat of what he is capable of doing so if he is not respected or disobeyed in any way then severe consequences will result. Martin Scorsese takes certain scenes in which it is important for Frank to be feared and uses underlying symbolism to develop his ideas. â€Å"I’m not the cops I’m not asking†. The first scene in which animal clothing is used to show Frank dominant position is his first meeting with Billy Costigan. Frank talks down to Costigan in this scene exerting his dominance and at one point beating him repeatedly in his broken hand asking several times if Costigan is a cop. Frank uses certain dialogue to show his position of high power giving evidence that he is the king of his concrete jungle. Another scene in which Frank is shown wearing animal clothing is the scene in which Billy Costigan is meeting with Frank inside his condominium on the harbor. The true ruthlessness of Frank is yet again shown when he pulls the hand of a recently assassinated protestant man from a plastic bag. Frank then looks to Billy and says â€Å"a man can look at anything and make something out of it. For instance, I look at you and I think what can I use you for?† This entails that Frank does not truly care about Billy and that he is just another tool for Frank to use to achieve success. In this scene several responses occur, one is that Frank is a dominant tactician. An additional response comes through the symbolism of the animal clothing. This response is that Frank has an apparent disregard for human life. There is a moral obligation of people in a normal society to avoid harming one another. In the animal kingdom survival of the fittest is the law in which the animals abide by throughout daily life. Frank defies the normality of typical humans in that he has no moral obligations to take care of anyone. He eliminates anyone who interferes with his business or anyone who stands between him and accomplishing his goals. Like the lion Frank understands that if killing is the only option to keep him alive or out of jail then he will go to any end to preserve his way of life and better himself. He does what it takes to survive living life with a ruthless strong animal like persona. This idea is clearly represented throughout The Departed in which Martin Scorsese uses the symbolism of animal clothing to revel Frank’s true ruthlessness and attitude towards humans. Frank gives reason to believe that a person is only as good as what they can do for him. He is constantly setting people up to take falls for his crimes disregarding their lives family and friends. Frank’s complete disregard for the sanctity of life shows that he is a true animal in which Martin Scorsese portrays perfectly in The Departed. Without the aid of small symbolism within The Departed it would be much harder to distinguish characters true identity and intentions. The true intentions of Collin Sullivan or Detective Sullivan are most prevalent in the instances in which he is engulfed and mesmerized by the shots of the Massachusetts State Building. Collin desires to escape his criminal lifestyle by achieving success as a lawyer. He also desires to be a high-class citizen and to make something of himself unlike his father. Whenever placed in situations of trouble a shot of the Massachusetts State Building is shown it is evident that this is another use of symbolism by director Martin Scorsese. During the opening scenes of The Departed it is shown through the director’s choice of shot along with meaningful dialogue that Collin Sullivan desires to achieve greatness outside of the criminal realm. While sitting on a park bench Barrigan, Sullivan’s coworker says to Sullivan as he gazes in awe at the sight of the State Building â€Å"What are you looking at? Forget it. Your father was a janitor, and his son’s only a cop†. This first scene of the State Building opens a door to view Collin’s internal desire to have a more distinguished lawful existence rather than that of a rat lacking honor and integrity. As the film progresses it is shown through Collin’s dialogue that he is attending law school showing that he has ambitions to someday become a lawyer or politician leaving his current position which lacks honor behind. While being shown an apartment Collin is once again caught in a trance peering through his soon to be apartment window at the State Building. The realtor then makes the remarks â€Å"You move in your upper class by Tuesday†. This once again exemplifies the desires of Collin to become a person of class or someone who is respected and held in high regards by others. In the concluding scenes after the films climax which included the deaths of Costello, Costigan, and Queenan Sullivan enters his apartment to find Detective Dignam waiting to assassinate him. As Sullivan falls to the apartment floor the ever-present symbolism of the State Building is shown again. While Sullivan’s life ended in a tragic manner it is evident through the symbolism that he desired and could have achieved a lawful existence. If placed in a different environment at a young age Collin could have possibly become a great law enforcement official rather than a criminal.

Environmentalism in US Politics

Environmentalism in US Politics Environmentalist Gets Down to Earth Over the past few years, environmentalists had yet to find accountable successes in their campaigns, as people seemingly refused to listen to their plans and ideas. For example, environmentalists constantly alert customers about the contents of common goods, yet despite of the excessive and uncontrolled amount of fat and calories that are unhealthy, there is tendency for the customers to ignore the messages. Or the fact that their campaigns to restrict carbon emissions have failed miserably in 2010, regardless of the obvious warning signs of global warming. Challenged with difficulties, environmentalist’s groups are revolutionizing themselves to the new circumstances. Executives have been changed frequently over the past 15 months. Instead of focusing on global problems that do not seem to attract attentions, or that are too difficult to solve at the moment, environmentalists are sharpening their focus into a more transitional and local anxieties. On top of that, they will als o attempt to draw attention to the relationship between lobbyists and elections. Their most noticeable success, which was the discontinuation of Keystone XL pipeline, is being propelled forward again this year by its defenders in the Congress. Things don’t stop there. With the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico early in 2010, in addition to the defeat to limit carbon emissions globally, the only objective left to save them from collapsing is to carry on with suspending the scheduled pipeline. In order for their organizations to remain practical, they need young leaders that could effectively communicate with younger generations. One example is Mr. McKibben, founder of 350.org, who successfully conveyed the group’s message to the rest of the populations through the means of mass communications, noticeably the internet, and mass protests. Mr. McKibben commented that young leaders often dismisses losses and are more eager to fight even though lucks aren’t in their fav ors. Michael Brune is one of the leaders that are most praised by Mr.McKibben. Michael Brune became the executive director of Sierra’s Club at the age of 38. He does not concentrate on global warming on a international scale, however, cleverly on a much more local scale. For example, he would point out how local coal plant is contributing to asthma attacks in children, which would raise concerns from local parents, and in effect, supporters for his campaigns. Hydraulic fracturing is also one problem that the local has to face. Strictly speaking, natural gas is one of the cleanest source of energy (or as environmentalists call it, â€Å"greenest†). However, it is not natural gas that is causing problems, but the way it is being collected by companies. Primitive regulations around hydraulic fracturing is producing unsuitable ways to collect gas from underground, which is poisoning the underground water supplies. Politically speaking, environmentalists are predominantly Democrats. However, recent voting expenditures on both parties are quite extraordinary and excessive. Hence, this creates distrusts within the people as succeeded candidates are not obliged to complete their promises. Therefore, seeing how both political parties are sailing towards profits instead common good, people are often divided. Consequently, the goal of environmentalists is to unite people to strive for a more prosperous future for humanity. Drilling Critics Face a Divide Over the Goal of Their Fight Hydraulic fracturing or fracking is a controversial matter at the present. It is to extract natural gas by drilling and infusing fluid underground at high pressure. Easier said than done. As mentioned before, natural gas is one of the â€Å"greenest† source of energy available. It is the unregulated ways of extracting the mentioned source that is creating concerns with local and national organizations. Even though there are solutions to the problems, people are undecided as to completely ban the method or enforce on stricter regulations. Of course, there are always two sides to the stories. Needless to say, there are jobs that are involved with fracking, and by banning it, there will be unpredicted consequences. Regulations are similar to laws, which are often different from state to state. It will be very difficult to one simple solution to fix it all. Such that fracking is economically potent, it is emerging as an industry, and a profitable one at that. Landowners are eager to participate to benefit from the process. But the more people come to understand about fracking and how it is practiced, it is difficult to state whether the whole process can be safely handled. Wes Gillingham, program director for Catskill Mountainkeeper, predicted it, â€Å"a disaster for New York State.† The issue is a rather complicated one, such that, the State Department of Environmental Conservation has received 20,800 comments from citizens, which forthrightly exceeds any issues that have ever surfaced. The problem here is the fact that complete banning of the practice is not possible, as any profitable businesses will continue to exist, however, to what extent the government should regulate is questionable. Even though the oppositions see the practice as unethical and endangering to neighborhood, its supporters regard fracking as a cleaner source of energy, which would be on par with renewable sources of energy, such as wind and solar power. Environmentalistâ€℠¢s groups themselves are divided, as some regard it as safe and secure while others completely disagree. A possible solution has arisen is to suspend fracking until further studies are completed. The obvious fact is  people do not wish fracking to continue at its state, which is profitably harmful. Chapter 5 Year 2000, Democratic candidate Al Gore received more than 550,000 more votes, but Electoral College decided who win the presidency by a majority. The voting was so that the Florida Electoral College could have given the majority to either George Bush or Al Gore as the next President. It is obvious that when Florida State received too much attention, there will be briberies and cheatings involved. The cheatings could not possibly come from the two candidates themselves, but there were corporations interested in one specific candidate winning. That was the reason why Gore sued Floridas State from having counted the votes manually, and possibly cheated along the way. Gore demanded for a recount, however, Bush prevented from happening. In the end, George Bush won the presidency, yet, it was not clear whether he won by having majority in 537 total votes in Florida or merely on vote on the Supreme Court. Year 2004, Bush easily dominated his opponent. He received 3,500,000 more votes nationwide, and also won a majority of the popular vote in the Electoral College. Bushs victory did not reflect only on his personal achievement, but also on the Republicans new domination. Along with Republicans winning presidency by having both majority in the popular vote and Electoral College, they have dominated the Democratic Party, by having more majorities in the House of Representatives and in the Senate. It is surprising that the United States has one of the lowest rates in turnout in comparison to other industrialized democracies. The rates of turnout reflects upon citizens will of participation and citizens view of the political parties. The United States is a two-party system, whereas other democratic countries have multiparty. The reason is that Democratic and Republican parties have dominated the political systems for a lengthy period of time, and the introduction of any political parties is deemed unnecessary, hence uncovered by any mass media communication, thus, unnoticed by the public. This is noticeably one effect of the media upon the political system. The low rate of turnout indicates the skepticism of the citizens upon the political parties, where they dont trust any of the parties. Some will have to choose the lesser evil of the two, while others decide not to participate. In addition, the turnout was severely suppressed in the South, as voters were required to pay a hi gh fee to vote, took a literacy test as well as a good character test. That was why seventy five percentages of the blacks and poor were eliminated from voting. Political scientist Walter Burnham states that working class citizens dont vote as much the the upper class in society. This can explain by the fact that the working class cannot often sacrifice their time to vote, as voting time is synced with working hours. In addition, their votes dont always matter as candidates can win by having majority in the Electoral College. The upper class citizens vote more often than lower class citizens and they have more chance to influence the outcome through donations to political campaigns. Interestingly enough, the authors of the Constitution never believed in political parties. They condemned political parties as a danger to liberty, and hoped for the government to constantly check and balance the parties. Because of our two party system, there will be diverse and conflicting interests wi thin the same group. For example, in the past, there were people from the Democratic Party that supported the integration and those opposed it. The political parties often ignored the conflicts or any concerns from the citizens, since they will have no choice but to vote for one of the party. The political parties will only response to issues that are beneficial to the elites, since they are the biggest supporters and donors. In a way, the two system party fail to reflect upon the needs of the majority and satisfies a small portion of society. The truth remains that candidates need a lot of money for their political campaigns and ads. For example, in 2004, 91% of the Senate and 96 % of the House of Representatives won their seats because they spent more than their opponents. Candidates dont often have the money readily available, however, these money can come from donations from corporations and firms. These companies often regard these expenditures as investment for their political influence. The truth is, they are. Representative Michael Oxley put it as, it would be difficult to ask people to contribute, and not let us know their opinion. It is hard to conversate with politicians, but with a little bit of money, they might hear us better. It is of course illegal to directly give cash to politicians for political decision, however, contributions are elusive and indirect, thus, making them legal. The benefits of donations can include the motivation for legislator to support a bill and recommendation of amendments to a bill . Seeing how corrosive and elusive these contributions are, the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) was introduced in 1974 to control contributions and spending. All receipts and disbursement are required to be made public. But on the other hand, the Political Action Committees was also formed to combat with the FECA. There are basically two kinds of contributions, soft and hard money. Hard money has to be reported, yet, soft money, which is meant for educational and building party purposes, is unregulated and unlimited. In fact, 3/4 of the soft money come from business executives. The solution from the FECA was to increase the amount of hard money contributions per person, from $1000 to $2000. Even though money does not guarantee victory, it means one has not spent enough money to achieve what they desired. Political participation in the U.S is namely open, one can know for certain that it is not free.

International Institutions and Nuclear Proliferation: The Dependence on

The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) that took effect in 1968 was the landmark of international cooperation during the Cold War. As of 2015, there are 190 nations as parties to the treaty with four abstentions and one withdrawal. While the cooperative importance of this treaty cannot be understated, it is not the only International Institution that has a prominent place in the non-proliferation, disarmament and nuclear safety realm. The question isn’t whether these institutions are necessary in the international community, but how effective these Non-Governmental Organizations and institutions are in an international community dominated by sovereign nations. These institutions may have member states or they may be a transnational cooperative based on private/public funding and have obtained authority by its actions and/or the support of sovereign states. In order to argue the merits of this diverse range of NGOs and international institutio ns in nuclear non-proliferation, disarmament and safety, I will look at the NPT and briefly at its custodial body, the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA), the EU Non-Proliferation Consortium and finally the IAEA, or the International Atomic Energy Agency. In order to judge the effectiveness of these organizations, I will analyze their mandate, their operational flexibility and their authority in certain cases, such as the ongoing Syrian Crisis, the nuclear situation in Iran, and finally recent pressures in the Middle East with regards to the NPT, namely the relationship between Israel and nearby Arab states. The NPT has been the called the most binding non-proliferation agreement in existence and has influenced all national and interna... ...-547. â€Å"About ISIS,† Institute for Science and International Security, accessed November 5, 2013, http://isis-online.org/about/. Patrick Migliorini et al., â€Å"Iranian Breakout Estimates, Updated September 2013,† Institute for Science and International Security, October 24, 2013, accessed November 5, 2013, http://isis-online.org/uploads/isis-reports/documents/Breakout_Study_Summary_24October2013.pdf: 1. Richard Engel and Robert Windrem, â€Å"Israel teams with terror group to kill Iran’s nuclear scientists, US officials tell NBC News,† NBC News, accessed November 4, 2013, http://rockcenter.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/02/09/10354553-israel-teams-with-terror-group-to-kill-irans-nuclear-scientists-us-officials-tell-nbc-news. Ian Johnstone, â€Å"US-UN Relations after Iraq: The End of the World (Order) As We Know It?† European Journal of International Law, 15(4) (2004): 814.

A European Way of War

CENTRE FOR EUROPEAN REFORM A EUROPEAN WAY OF WAR Steven Everts, Lawrence Freedman, Charles Grant, Francois Heisbourg, Daniel Keohane and Michael O'Hanlon about the CER The Centre for European Reform is a think-tank devoted to improving the quality of the debate on the European Union. It is a forum for people with ideas from Britain and across the continent to discuss the many social, political and economic challenges facing Europe. It seeks to work with similar bodies in other European countries, North America and elsewhere in the world. The CER is pro-European but not uncritical.It regards European integration as largely bene? cial but recognises that in many respects the Union does not work well. The CER therefore aims to promote new ideas for reforming the European Union. A European way of war ? Director: CHARLES GRANT ADVISORY BOARD PERCY BARNEVIK†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Chairman, AstraZeneca CARL BILDT†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Former Swedish Prime Minister and Chairman, Nordic Venture Networks ANTONIO BORGES†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..Former Dean of INSEAD NICK BUTLER (CHAIR)†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Group Vice President, Strategy, BP p. l. c. LORD DAHRENDORF †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Former Warden of St Antony’s College, Oxford & EU Commissioner VERNON ELLIS†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. International Chairman, Accenture RICHARD HAASS†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. President, Council on Foreign Relations LORD HANNAY†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Former Ambassador to the UN and the EU IAN HARGREAVES†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Group Director of Corporate and Public Affairs, BAA plc LORD HASKINS OF SKIDBY†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Former Chairman, Northern Foods FRANCOIS HEISBOURG†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Director, Fondation pour la Recherche Strategique CATHERINE KELLEHER†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Visiting Research Professor, US Naval War College SIR JOHN KERR†¦. Former Ambassador to the EU and US & former Permanent Under Secretary, FCO FIORELLA KOSTORIS PADOA SCHIOPPA†¦.. Former President, Istituto di Studi e Analisi Economica RICHARD LAMBERT†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..Former Editor, Financial Times DAVID MARSH†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Partner, Droege & Comp. AG DOMINIQUE MOISI†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Senior Advisor, Institut Francais des Relations Internationales JOHN MONKS†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ General Secretary, ETUC DAME PAUL INE NEVILLE-JONES†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Chairman, QinetiQ p. l. c. WANDA RAPACZYNSKI†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. President of Management Board, Agora SA LORD SIMON OF HIGHBURY†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.Former Minister for Trade and Competitiveness in Europe PETER SUTHERLAND†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Chairman, BP p. l. c. & Goldman Sachs International ADAIR TURNER†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Vice Chairman, Merrill Lynch Holdings Ltd. Steven Everts, Lawrence Freedman, Charles Grant, Francois Heisbourg, Daniel Keohane and Michael O’Hanlon Published by the Centre for European Reform (CER), 29 Tufton Street, London, SW1P 3QL Telephone + 44 20 7233 1199, Facsimile + 44 20 7233 1117, [email  protected] org. uk, www. cer. org. uk  © CER MAY 2004 ? ISBN 1 901229 54 8ABOUT THE AUTHORS Steven Everts is a senior research fellow at the Centre for European Reform, and director of its transatlantic programme. His recent CER publications include ‘Engaging Iran: a test case for EU foreign policy’ (March 2004); ‘The EU and the Middle East: a call for action’ (January 2003); and ‘Shaping a credible EU foreign policy’ (February 2002). Lawrence Freedman is professor of war studies and vice principal (Research) at King’s College, London. He is the author of a number of books on Cold War history and contemporary security issues, most recently ‘Deterrence’ (Polity, 2004).He is also of? cial historian of the Falklands campaign. Charles Grant has been director of the Centre for European Reform since 1998. He was previously defence editor and Bru ssels correspondent of The Economist. His most recent CER publication is ‘Transatlantic rift: how to bring the two sides together’ (July 2003). Francois Heisbourg is director of the Paris-based Fondation pour la Recherche Strategique, and chairman of both the International Institute of Strategic Studies and the Geneva Centre for Security Policy. He is also a member of the CER’s advisory board.Daniel Keohane is the research fellow for security and defence policy at the Centre for European Reform. He previously worked at the EU Institute for Security Studies in Paris, and at the Institute for National Strategic Studies, National Defense University, in Washington DC. He is the author of ‘The EU and armaments co-operation’ (CER December 2002). Michael O’Hanlon is a senior fellow at the Brookings Institution. He previously worked for the US Congress. In his ten years at Brookings, he has written on US defence strategy and the defence budget, the Ko sovo war, missile defence, military technology, space warfare and homeland security.AUTHORS’ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank EDS for their support of this project. They also owe particular thanks to Kate Meakins for designing this publication, and to Aurore Wanlin and John Springford for their research help. In addition, the CER is grateful to the German Marshall Fund of the US for supporting the CER’s transatlantic programme. Charles Grant would like to thank the following for their help: Victoria Billing, Gavin Cook, Marta Dassu, Paul Johnston, Edwina Moreton and Simon Webb. ? Copyright of this publication is held by the Centre for European Reform.You may not copy, reproduce, republish or circulate in any way the content from this publication except for your own personal and noncommercial use. Any other use requires the prior written permission of the Centre for European Reform. Contents About the authors Authors’ acknowledgements Foreword 1 I ntroduction Steven Everts and Daniel Keohane 2 Can the EU develop an effective military doctrine? Lawrence Freedman 3 The ‘European Security Strategy’ is not a security strategy Francois Heisbourg 4 The American way of war: the lessons for Europe Michael O’Hanlon 5 Conclusion: the signi? ance of European defence Charles Grant 55 41 27 13 1 Foreword EDS has worked for many years in partnership with the ministries of defence and the armed forces on both sides of the Atlantic. We currently have colleagues stationed in the Middle East, in support of UK forces. We are, therefore, delighted to be supporting this new CER work, ‘A European way of war’. In the best traditions of the CER, it has brought together key experts from both sides of the Atlantic to debate the future of European defence. What is striking about the contributions is the high level of agreement on what Europe needs to do.They avoid the stereotyping of the US-Europe relationship as a divi sion of labour in which – as Francois Heisbourg says – the US ‘kicks in doors’ and the EU ‘cleans the house’. All agree that Europe must urgently improve its military capabilities if it is to translate the goal of â€Å"effective multilateralism† from rhetoric into reality. It must reduce the scale of its land armies and the number of duplicate equipment programmes. Europe must begin investing in technologies and equipment that complement rather than duplicate US investment. Equally, the authors highlight the lessons and experiences which Europe can offer to the US in he prosecution of unconventional warfare, for example in deterring insurgents and terrorists. These essays provide a timely reminder of how the US and Europe are united by a common need to tackle global terrorism and proliferation, as well as their underlying causes. They all agree on the need for Europe to become a more effective military power and to take more responsibi lity for its own backyard. But they debunk some of the myths associated with the debate. All agree that Europe need not spend as much as the US or copy America’s force structure and doctrine in every respect.As Steven Everts and Daniel Keohane stress, a European way of war does not mean either the creation of â€Å"an EU army under Brussels control, or the end of the NATO military alliance†. This work is a valuable contribution to the current debate on the future of European defence. Its prescriptions on how Europe can play an effective military role in world affairs deserve to be taken up by Europe’s leaders. Graham Lay Managing Director EDS Defence 1 Introduction Steven Everts and Daniel Keohane The idea of a ‘European way of war’ is controversial. Many defence commentators and of? ials assume that the phrase is a metaphor for two, equally undesirable, outcomes: an EU army under the control of Brussels and the end of NATO. The reality is that the EU will not have its own army for decades to come – if ever. Nor will NATO’s status as Europe’s pre-eminent defence organisation change any time soon. Most discussions on the future of European defence, when cast in such terms, generate more heat than light. There is, however, a real need for Europeans to think more creatively about what kind of defence capability they want. What sorts of missions do they envisage? And how do they expect their forces to operate in the future?European governments need to make a tough assessment of the additional tasks they want their armies to perform, alongside traditional peacekeeping. Clearly, Europe cannot hope to copy the American approach to warfare, with its heavy emphasis on technology and ‘full spectrum dominance’ – the ability to defeat any enemy in every conceivable category of weaponry. The budgetary constraints are simply too great. But equally, the Europeans should not try to emulate the American s’ doctrine or force structure in their entirety – even if they had unlimited money – because Europe has very different trategic priorities. For a range of historical and political reasons, Europeans do not share all of America’s security policy goals. And yet American doctrine, tactics and capabilities remain the benchmark for nearly all European discussions on defence policy. 2 A European way of war Introduction 3 Such constant, and mostly unfavourable, comparisons with the US tend to create a harmful sense of impotence and resignation among European defence of? cials. The European countries have very disparate military traditions, and they have great difficulties finding money for new defence equipment.Despite these problems, can European governments develop more innovative and ambitious defence policies? The answer is yes, but only if European defence ministries develop their own distinctive approach to warfare. European Council, Brussels, ‘A se cure Europe in a better world – European Security Strategy’, December 12th 2003. 1 warfare: peacekeeping, nation-building and counter-insurgency. Thus the Pentagon could learn a lot from European experiences and ways of operating. Our American contributor, Michael O’Hanlon, argues that the Pentagon is already learning fast from its post-con? ct experience in Iraq. He stresses that stabilisation missions should not be seen as less important than those involving high-intensity warfare. And he argues that the greatest threat to the health of the US military in the coming years is insuf? cient numbers of troops to help with nationbuilding. He adds that the dif? culties that US troops face when working with technologically backward European allies are a serious but secondary problem. Freedman and O’Hanlon agree that both American and European armed forces need a better mixture of regular warfighting capabilities and peacekeeping skills.But politicians in Europ e should take note – and take heart – that such improvements need not mean massive increases in defence budgets. The 2 Based on estimates governments of the EU-25 collectively spend in the SIPRI Yearbook approximately S180 billion ($220 billion) a year on 2003, ‘Armaments, defence, which is a signi? cant amount of money. 2 disarmaments and For all its weaknesses, the EU remains the world’s international security’, Oxford University second highest spender after the US, which devotes Press, Oxford, 2003. some S330 billion ($400 billion) to defence.O’Hanlon recommends that over the next decade EU governments should spend 10 per cent of their annual defence budgets on speci? c types of equipment. These include long-range transport planes and ships, unmanned aerial vehicles, and precision-guided missiles. To pay for this, he argues, defence ministries should cut their manpower by a quarter, and focus on developing highly trained combat troops. If defence ministries followed this plan, by 2015 Europe would have more than 200,000 high-quality, professional soldiers, able to operate at short notice anywhere around the globe.At the moment the US can send about 400,000 ground troops The European security strategy, prepared by EU foreign policy chief Javier Solana, provides a good basis for thinking about a European approach to warfare. 1 But, as Francois Heisbourg points out in this pamphlet, that security strategy contains some glaring gaps. He argues that the EU should do three things in particular: draw up a complementary strategy for the EU’s internal security; audit the impact of European development programmes on security in recipient countries; and start working on an EU military doctrine.In his essay, Lawrence Freedman questions the utility of an EU military doctrine, and concludes that it would be redundant. He thinks it unlikely that 25 European governments could ever agree on a meaningful doctrine. But Britain a nd France could take the lead, he argues, in de? ning a distinctly ‘European’ military contribution to dealing with global security problems. London and Paris are the only European capitals that have run their own military operations in recent years, sometimes in very demanding environments.And, unlike the other Europeans, the French and the British already have highly developed military doctrines of their own. Freedman also argues that, even though the US is the world’s predominant military power, European soldiers are often better than American ones at many of the missions that dominate contemporary 4 A European way of war 5 around the world, out of a total of about 650,000. But presently the EU-25 can barely deploy 85,000, out of a total of 1. 2 million ground soldiers. 3 From both a defence planner’s point of view, and that of the taxpayer, Europe’s armies need 3 These ? ures do not include air force or urgent reform. navy personnel. The total n umber of the US armed forces is approximately 1. 4 million people. The 25 EU governments have almost 2 million people in their total armed forces. Figures based on estimates in the ‘The Military Balance 2003-2004’, International Institute for Strategic Studies, London 2004. Recent developments in Brussels Heisbourg, Freedman and O’Hanlon all agree that in principle a European approach to warfare is a good idea, provided three basic conditions are met: ?Europe’s two pre-eminent military powers, Britain and France, must take the lead in de? ning a European approach to war. Some EU governments may balk at having to follow an approach that would be de? ned to a large extent by British and French doctrine. However, Europe is better off with a sound military doctrine than a meaningless political compromise. In their approach to warfare, Europeans should learn from the US approach, and from American experiences in places such as Iraq and Afghanistan. European arm ies should be able to work well with American soldiers.However, Europe’s armies do not have to copy US forces in every respect. European defence ministries need to retain their traditional peacekeeping skills, while simultaneously building up their war-fighting prowess. The EU needs to develop the internal aspects of its security and defence policy. In particular, European governments have to think about how to join up the various policy instruments which they need in the fight against global terrorism. EU governments need to ensure that their law enforcement, foreign and defence policies work together more effectively.The good news is that NATO and the EU are already taking steps that will help their members to develop a European approach to warfare. At NATO’s 2002 Prague summit, President Bush called on the Europeans to increase their military might by creating a NATO Response Force (NRF). European governments followed his lead, approving a plan for a force of 21,000 elite troops, backed by supporting air and sea components, to be ready by 2006. This force will enable NATO to engage in a serious shooting war, in addition to its current peacekeeping work.By the end of 2003, NATO governments had already committed 9,000 troops to the response force, including 1,700 French soldiers. The NRF will be mainly European: the US accounts for only 300 (3 per cent) of the troops so far committed. 4 Washington’s message to its allies has been clear: Europe must increase its ability to undertake tough war-? ghting tasks if NATO is to remain central to US defence policy. NATO’s Response Force is goading the Europeans to prepare some of their troops for the most demanding types of military mission. 4 Spain is the biggest contributor to the NRF, with 2,200 troops.Germany is contributing 1,100 soldiers. See Luke Hill, ‘Alliance launches triservice rapid Response Force’, Jane’s Defence Weekly, October 22nd 2003. ? ? In February 20 04, the British, French and German governments proposed that the EU should be able to deploy nine ‘battle groups’, each consisting of 1,500 troops, and deployable within two weeks. Each battle group would be able to draw on extensive air and naval assets, including transport and logistical support. The rationale for these EU combat units is to give the UN the rapid reaction capability that it currently lacks. The UN usually manages to ? d peacekeepers who can police a cease? re or peace accord. But it often cannot ? nd troops available to form an intervention force. It needs to be able to draw on a few battalions which are ready and able to ? y into a con? ict zone and impose peace. For example, the UN was unable to intervene quickly enough in East Timor in 1999. The Bush administration is unlikely to provide the UN with US forces for this kind of task. Currently the United States has only two 6 A European way of war Introduction 7 See http://www. un. org/ Depts/dpko/dp ko/ contributors/Countries SummaryFeb2004. df. 5 soldiers involved in UN-run peacekeeping operations (out of a total of 42,000 soldiers, of which 3,650 are from the EU-25). 5 If the US is unwilling to provide peacekeepers, it is even less likely to make elite forces available for UN interventions. But the EU could be willing to help the UN: countries such as Britain and France have highly trained forces which can move into a war-zone at short notice. And European governments care much more than the US does about the UN’s ability to act in geographical areas that may not be of fundamental strategic importance.This is why the EU sent a small UN-mandated intervention force to Bunia in Congo in June 2003. And in April 2004 the EU considered the possibility of sending a UN-backed intervention force to the Dafur region of Sudan, where more than 650,000 people had ? ed killings, rape and looting by Arab militias. EU defence ministers agreed to the battle group initiative at their me eting in April 2004. They now have until 2007 to establish these forces – and may do so in three ways. First, a government could put together a national battle group.Only France and Britain could do this easily, although Germany, Spain and Italy should be able to develop their own combat units. Second, relatively large countries – such as Sweden and the Netherlands – could become lead or ‘framework’ nations for a battle group. Smaller countries would then supply some troops or equipment to plug gaps that the lead country could not ? ll. The third option would be for several countries to come together to form truly multinational units, similar to the Strasbourg-based Eurocorps, which unites soldiers from Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg and Spain.For a smaller country which does not want to ‘plug into’ a particular lead nation, a multinational unit might be politically more appealing. For example, the Nordic and Baltic countries coul d decide to form a Baltic battle group. But multinational battle groups need not be regional. The EU’s non-aligned countries, for example, might want to form their own. Austria, Finland and Ireland are of similar military strength, and they could ? nd that co-operating with fellow neutrals rather than NATO members would avoid embarrassing questions regarding their neutral status.In any case the creation of these battle groups – like the NATO Response Force – should help Europeans to think more alike on how they conduct warfare. Moreover, this effort should reinforce NATO’s Response Force: the same troops would be available to the EU and NATO. During the summer of 2004, they EU will set up a new agency. The ‘defence capabilities development, research, acquisition and armaments agency’ will try to do two things, both of which will help the Europeans to develop a common approach to defence. It will seek to improve European military capabilities and to enhance armaments co-operation among the member-states.Unlike a typical national armaments agency, this new body will not have a procurement budget. So a better short description would be to call it a ‘capabilities agency’, since it will bring together the separate worlds of research, development and procurement. The agency’s most important role will be political, in assessing member-states’ progress towards meeting their capability commitments. Over the last few years, the Europeans’ progress towards modernising and re-equipping their armies has been painfully slow.In 2002, EU governments agreed to a ‘European capabilities action plan’ (ECAP), which committed them to acquiring various sorts of equipment, such as transport planes and precision-guided missiles. The agency will evaluate and report annually on the member-states’ progress towards meeting these commitments. At present, the agency looks set to keep these reports confidential. That would be a shame. If those reports were made public, the agency could ‘name and shame’ the member-states which renege on pledges, and thus put them under pressure to deliver. 8 A European way of war Introduction 9Finally, European governments are due to reach agreement on an EU constitution in June 2004. This will probably include articles on ‘structured co-operation’, EU jargon for a process that allows a small group of member-states to move forward in the area of defence. Given that EU countries have, and will always have, very different military capabilities, closer co-operation amongst a smaller group makes sense. Quite apart from the much-documented transatlantic gap, there is also a large capabilities gulf between EU member-states – a gulf that will widen with the accession of ten new members in May 2004. A revised version of the draft protocol listing the criteria for joining ‘structured co-operation’ can be fo und at http://ue. eu. int/igcpdf/en/03/c g00/cg00057-re01. en03. pdf. – and demanding nature – of future missions. The EU undertook its ? rst military missions in Macedonia and Congo in 2003. These experiences have already helped defence ministries to understand which kinds of equipment they need most urgently, and what types of skills their troops should develop. Towards the end of 2004, the EU is due to take over the peacekeeping in Bosnia from NATO: this mission will be extremely dif? ult, including, for example, the hunt for the indicted Bosnian Serb general, Radovan Karadzic. Much more than the Congo or Macedonia operations, Bosnia will be a crucial test of the EU’s military mettle. The enlargement of the EU brings it closer to the arc of instability that runs around its eastern, south-eastern and southern ? anks. Romania and Bulgaria are hoping to join the EU in 2007, while Turkey, Croatia and other countries of the Western Balkans are likely to enter at a later stage. The EU will therefore have many weak and malfunctioning states on its borders.It is bound to become more involved in countries such as Belarus, Moldova and Georgia. Across the Atlantic, US priorities will remain focused on countries such as Iraq, Iran and North Korea, and con? icts such as China-Taiwan and India-Pakistan. Washington will be reluctant to become too involved in con? icts around the EU’s eastern and southern borders. The EU will need to develop a more effective set of policies for stabilising North Africa, the Balkans and the countries that lie between the Union and Russia. Many of these policies will involve trade, aid and political dialogue.But EU strategy towards its nearabroad will also have to include a military component. Europeans should not expect the US to put out ? res in their own backyard. After all, the principal rationale for the Anglo-French initiative at St Malo in 1998 – which begat the European Security and Defence Policy à ¢â‚¬â€œ was to improve the EU’s poor performance in coping with the Balkan crises of the 1990s. The EU’s efforts to tackle con? icts in its near abroad may require more than ‘mere’ peacekeeping. For example, if the delicateThat said, the current wording of the draft constitution sets targets for participation in the avant-garde which are relatively easy to meet. For example, the draft says that one of the criteria for participation is to supply by 2007 all or part of a combat unit that can be deployed in between ? ve and thirty days. 6 In fact, these combat units are the same types of force as those envisaged in the ‘battle groups’ plan that EU defence ministers approved in April 2004. However, some member-states will probably stay out of the structured co-operation, because they lack the assets or the ambition to take part.The defence inner circle will in some respects resemble the eurozone: some countries remain outside because they do not s atisfy the criteria, and others because they choose to do so. Structured co-operation will help the emergence of a European approach to warfare: like the NRF and the battle groups, the concept encourages other countries to emulate what the British and French armed forces do. The transatlantic case for a European way of war Innovations such as the NATO Response Force and the EU battle groups should, together with some institutional innovations, enhance Europe’s military clout.But probably the most important factor driving military reform in Europe will be the growing number 10 A European way of war Introduction 11 situation in Kosovo turned into a civil war, the EU should be ready to intervene with forces that could separate the warring factions. In such situations, British soldiers would be fighting alongside those from France, Germany, Italy and Spain, but not necessarily with American troops. If the Europeans were able to undertake that kind of robust military intervention autonomously, transatlantic relations would benefit. For the Pentagon would have one less region to worry about.Furthermore, the more effective the Europeans’ military prowess, the more likely is the US to use NATO not only for peacekeeping but also for high-intensity interventions. The future of EU defence policy All the authors of this pamphlet are worried about the risk of a transatlantic division of labour – namely the idea that Europe should do the peacekeeping and America ? ght the wars. But they all reject that notion, both as a description of the present and as a prescription for the future. The experience of Iraq has already forced the US to rethink its approach to post-con? ict operations.Having sometimes sneered at them, the Pentagon is now learning that peacekeeping, nation-building, and counter-insurgency should play a larger role in its military doctrine. Meanwhile, as the EU takes on more military missions, its defence ministries are themselves engaged i n a learning process. They are starting to see that they will need more sophisticated equipment, and be prepared for serious combat missions. They know that they will not always be able to count on the US to do the war-? ghting for them. It is true that the US and Europe currently have very different doctrines and priorities.But experiences on the ground will probably encourage both sides to address their respective weaknesses: post-con? ict stabilisation for the US and war-? ghting for the Europeans. In the long run this may lead – to some extent – to doctrinal convergence. European soldiers already conduct peacekeeping operations very differently from American troops. They expend less effort on force protection, they fraternise more with locals and they are more reluctant to unleash ? re-power. Europeans will also, inevitably, fight their wars differently from the Americans.Given their budgetary constraints, European defence ministries have no choice but to focus les s than the Pentagon does on sophisticated technology and airpower, and more on the role of ground forces. But these differences of emphasis should not prevent the Europeans from defeating most of their prospective enemies. When the EU mounts an autonomous combat operation, it is likely to be against a small or medium-sized power with weak air defences. The Europeans do not plan to ? ght any large and wellequipped adversaries on their own. In such cases, European soldiers would ? ght alongside American troops.Finally, the rapid evolution of EU internal security policy will affect defence policy. The March 2004 bombings in Madrid con? rmed the ability of al-Qaeda-style terrorist groups to strike at Europe. In order to track these groups, EU governments will have to piece together information from a variety of sources. They have pledged to step up intelligence-sharing, and in March 2004 they appointed Gijs de Vries as the Union’s ? rst anti-terrorism ‘tsar’. Since t he terrorist threat comes from both within and outside the EU, the member-states can no longer afford to maintain 7 See Daniel Keohane the traditional distinction etween external and and Adam Townsend, internal security. 7 In the most extreme cases, EU ‘A joined-up EU security policy’, CER countries may wish to deploy force against a Bulletin, December terrorist group that is based abroad, or against a 2003 – January 2004. state that harbours terrorists. European defence policy is developing fast – and a more distinctive European approach to warfare is bound to emerge in coming years. However, such an approach is – paradoxically – more likely to develop in NATO than in the EU itself. For most European defence ministries, NATO will continue to be the principal multinational 2 A European way of war military organisation. That is not only because NATO is a military alliance – which the EU is not – but also because of NATO’s large and experienced military headquarters. More than 2,000 people work at NATO’s strategic headquarters (Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe – known as SHAPE) in Mons, Belgium, while the EU military staff in Brussels has fewer than 200 people. Moreover, NATO has regional command headquarters in Naples (Italy) and Brunssum (the Netherlands), as well as a ‘transformation’ headquarters in Norfolk (US), which focuses speci? ally on reforming NATO’s armies. Put simply, European armies are reforming principally because of their collaboration in NATO, rather than the EU. The best example of this reform process is the NATO Response Force. Britain, France, Spain and Germany are See Kori Schake, leading the European contribution to this force, ‘Constructive duplication: reducing EU reliance on US while American participation is only symbolic. military assets’, CER, Thus NATO is playing its part in promoting a January 2002. She proposed mo re ambitious but distinctly ‘European way that the Europeans develop of war’.The irony is that the NATO Response a ‘strike force’, similar to Force was an American idea, which the the NATO Response Force Europeans have enthusiastically embraced. 8 that governments agreed to 8 2 Can the EU develop an effective military doctrine? Lawrence Freedman Can the EU develop an effective military doctrine which would de? ne the procedures to guide armed forces in future con? icts? EU governments have very different military strengths and diverse attitudes towards the use of military force. Those differences mean that the EU would produce a dysfunctional military doctrine, if it tried to create one.However, either acting together or separately, EU armies could make a distinctively ‘European’ contribution to contemporary military operations. Britain and France should take the lead in de? ning that contribution. Their armed forces are the most capable and ex perienced in Europe, and have therefore had the opportunity to develop military doctrines that have been tested in the most dangerous types of operation. Any European military effort has to be compared with American military power. The US is in an unassailable position for winning conventional wars, as it did in Iraq in the spring of 2003.However, the problem of insurgents in Iraq has illustrated the extent to which the US has a dysfunctional military doctrine for unconventional warfare. Europeans should therefore not be obsessed with matching US military prowess. Europe’s conventional capabilities should be suf? cient to cope with most prospective con? icts, especially since the cases where they might ? ght wars without the Americans would be rare. Unconventional warfare has become the most signi? cant and demanding form of military operation, and in this area the Americans have a lot to learn from the Europeans. et up in November 2002. In the coming years, European governme nts should strengthen their military clout and conduct more ambitious autonomous military operations. But they should also improve the ability of their soldiers to work alongside Americans. As NATO evolves and reforms, the EU’s security and defence policy will reap the bene? ts. Those who see the ESDP and NATO as competing and mutually exclusive concepts – and there are a few such people, in some parts of the Pentagon and the French foreign ministry – are living in the past.NATO and EU defence policy will sink or swim together, and on current trends they will swim. 14 Can the EU develop an effective military doctrine? 15 An EU military doctrine would be dysfunctional Countries often develop reputations for conducting their military campaigns in accordance with their national character. On this basis, northern Europeans would be cool and calculating, and southern Europeans romantic and impetuous, while the British would be pragmatic and stubborn. In practice, how ever, geo-strategic considerations are the biggest in? uence on national military doctrines.A cursory glance at 20th century military campaigns backs up this point. In the 1960s, the Israelis knew they had to seize the initiative against Egypt, Jordan and Syria by striking ? rst; if they had waited until they were attacked they would have been swamped. In the 1940s, the Russians could depend on territorial space and population mass to defend against the invading German army, while the Germans wanted to make the most of their qualitative advantages – such as their superior equipment – before the quantitative disadvantages began to tell.For maritime powers such as Britain and the US, the natural instinct has been to project sea and air power from a distance, and to rely on allies to carry out the bulk of land warfare. To be relevant and effective, a military doctrine should draw on a view of the world and its problems; make assessments of available military capabilities (including those of allies and enemies); and add precise ideas about strategy and tactics for the armed forces to follow. Thus, a doctrine should provide a framework in which armed forces can train, plan, conduct exercises, and generally work together in a mutually reinforcing way.The best doctrines orientate armed forces for the future, so that soldiers recognise the situations in which they will find themselves and know how to act. A commander’s orders should be clear and well understood by his or her soldiers. By the same token, bad doctrine will lead to surprises and disorientation. In the worst circumstances, major adaptations to the organisation of the armed forces and the conduct of military operations will be required, even in the midst of a war going badly. A doctrine emanates rom a political process, involving ministries, agencies, and armed services – so any doctrinal changes will require negotiation between those disparate groups. Military doctrine, therefo re, reflects the preferences of powerful voices within government and the armed forces, as well as the concerns of key allies. One consequence of a complex political process involving a range of competing interests may be a dysfunctional doctrine. The risk of dysfunction grows during a prolonged period of peace, which tends to spare doctrine from critical scrutiny.Only regular experience with combat and the ultimate empirical test of war provide defence ministries with constant reality checks. The risk of a dysfunctional EU doctrine is high, mainly because it would require 25 governments and their respective defence establishments to compromise. If EU governments did agree on a common military doctrine, it would stem from a determination to demonstrate political unity – and not from the need for a doctrine that would provide effective guidance in an actual conflict.Furthermore, European governments have not yet developed a very successful EU foreign policy. And such a foreign policy is a precondition for EU success in the military sphere. No European soldiers will be deployed on EU military missions if the Union’s governments cannot agree on their political objectives. The impact of having several governments negotiate strategy documents, whether in the EU or NATO, is to render those documents more bland and vague. The European Security Strategy, which EU leaders approved in December 2003, illustrates that point (see Francois Heisbourg’s chapter).Furthermore, these political processes have become even more complicated with the arrival of ten new EU members in May 2004. Both the EU and NATO are becoming increasingly unwieldy and less able to act swiftly and resolutely in a crisis. But NATO has more chance of acting decisively, because of US leadership and the absence of the more paci? st EU neutrals (Austria, Finland, Ireland and, to a lesser extent, Sweden). In addition, most EU member-states have only limited experience of war-? ghting. W ith the exception of France, the enthusiasm in some 16 A European way of warCan the EU develop an effective military doctrine? 17 capitals for the ‘Europeanisation’ of national armed forces too often appears to be directly related to a deep reluctance to use military force. Belgium is the most conspicuous example of this tendency. Only Britain and France have recently had substantial military experience. Only London and Paris have had to think about the demands of high-octane missions. For example, aside from contributing to various military coalitions, Britain sent troops to Sierra Leone in 2000, while France deployed soldiers on its own to the Ivory Coast in 2002.Other EU member-states have participated in coalition wars or in peacekeeping operations – which have sometimes been quite bruising experiences. And many EU governments are making substantial contributions to operations in the Balkans, Afghanistan and Iraq. But a serious military doctrine should not on ly re? ect combat experience but also command experience. Countries like Germany and Spain are going through a useful military reform process, but their national doctrines remain limited compared to those of Britain and France, because they have less experience of commanding larger units of troops.Much contemporary warfare is against opponents which do not represent a direct existential threat, as did the Soviet Union, but rather cause chaos in the more fragile parts of the world. There may be a variety of reasons why one EU government might feel obliged to get involved in a con? ict (such as lingering post-colonial ties), but equally many reasons why others might not. At present, there is no consensus in Europe on the purpose or the circumstances in which it is appropriate to use military force. There is, therefore, a risk that even if the EU had a military doctrine, re? cting the partial views and meagre capabilities of most of its member-states, the governments would not agree on whether to participate in, or on how to conduct future EU operations. For some countries, like France and Austria, an EU brand might legitimise a military doctrine and future operations; but for others, such as Denmark and some of the new EU members, it could have the opposite effect. For all these reasons, any attempt to turn the EU into a proper military organisation with a shared doctrine is bound to end in failure.However, a European approach to warfare does not have to be an EU approach. Instead, Europe could develop a ‘way of war’ that builds on the experience of the major European military powers, namely Britain and France. There is something distinctive about the demanding nature of their past experiences and present contributions which could be a model for the rest of Europe. Furthermore, those European countries that have actively participated in recent operations, such as Spain, Italy, Poland and the Netherlands, also share this distinctive approach, at leas t to some degree.Most wars are now fought by ‘coalitions of the willing’. International institutions – the United Nations, NATO or the EU – endow a degree of legitimacy on such coalitions, but do not run major wars themselves. The NATO management of the 1999 Kosovo war may be the exception that proves the rule. The real question is which governments are ready to join a coalition to address a particular emergency. A key aspect of the answer to that question is the likely role that the US would play in leading such coalitions. American military doctrine is dysfunctionalUS military doctrine has become increasingly dysfunctional. The principal reason is the changed nature of modern warfare, rather than the convoluted political process in Washington. European commentators often make the mistake of comparing de? ciencies in their own decision-making procedures to the complex and often acrimonious inter-agency process in Washington. The delays and confusion that the Washington process can cause are often serious. But there is an important difference with Europe: in the US there is a single decision-maker – the president – who serves as the ? nal arbiter.All US armed services – Army, Navy, Air Force and Marines – have developed their own doctrines, often with scant regard for each 18 A European way of war Can the EU develop an effective military doctrine? 19 other. Nevertheless, ever since the US withdrawal from Vietnam in 1975, an underlying assumption has given coherence and continuity to American military thinking. The fundamental assumption guiding the Pentagon is that US armed forces should prepare for wars against other major powers. All other types of operation are secondary ones which America should, if at all possible, avoid. From this assumption ? ws the reason that American doctrine has become dysfunctional: straightforward conventional wars against major powers are becoming a rarity, while complicated small wars are becoming more common. There are two specific reasons behind the failure of existing American doctrine. First, the energy and resources which the Pentagon devotes to conventional forces have reached a point of diminishing marginal returns. Second, the Pentagon has spent too little effort on training soldiers for those unconventional operations that it dismissed as non-core business, but which are increasingly dominating America’s military efforts.The recent US-led wars in Afghanistan and Iraq demonstrated that: ? ? ? with increasing accuracy. This means that the network of overseas bases which the US established in Europe during the Cold War is becoming redundant. As a consequence, allies are often considered to be something of a nuisance, demanding major political inputs in return for minor military outputs. Donald 9 US Department of Defense Rumsfeld, the US Secretary of Defense, has News Brie? ng in Warsaw with observed that in the current era the mission Secr etary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, September 25th 2002. hould determine the coalition, rather than the other way around. 9 NATO’s Kosovo war did much to shape America’s attitudes towards its allies. NATO tried to achieve its objectives through an air campaign, which led to an exaggerated perception of the disparity between American and European military capabilities. Europeans could barely muster 15 per cent of the total air sorties. But to the intense irritation of the Americans, this gap did not stop the Europeans from demanding a big say over the selection of targets and the overall course of the war. The largest transatlantic row occurred when the British overnment pushed for a commitment to use ground troops if the air campaign continued to fail to produce results. The Clinton administration was deeply reluctant to pay a domestic political price for such a land campaign. It feared that US public opinion would be unwilling to tolerate even modest casualties for what would be seen as marginal foreign policy objectives. Only Britain’s promise to commit up to 50,000 troops to an eventual land operation began to ease US objections. conventional victories are relatively easy to accomplish; the West can easily achieve air dominance; and the key military tests are increasingly found on the ground.In terms of conventional warfare, the US is now in a class of its own. This is hardly surprising since the US defence budget is equivalent to what the rest of the world spends collectively on defence. America also spends its defence money far more ef? ciently than European governments do. Even so, to occupy a country the size of Iraq with effectively only three combat divisions (each with between 10,000 and 18,000 soldiers), as the US did in April 2003, is remarkable. Furthermore, recent advances in defence technology have allowed American commanders to project lethal power over great distances EU defence: too much process, not enough outputTransatlan tic arguments over the Kosovo campaign had a major impact on European attitudes towards a common defence policy. By the end of the 1992-95 Bosnian war, European leaders were concerned about the United States’ limited commitment to resolving European con? icts. On the eve of the Kosovo war, in December 1998, British Prime Minister Tony Blair and French President Jacques Chirac held a summit at St Malo. They identi? ed a way 20 A European way of war Can the EU develop an effective military doctrine? 21 See Gilles Andreani, Christoph Bertram and Charles Grant, ‘Europe’s military revolution’, CER, 2001. 10 orward for European defence and the Kosovo war initially accelerated that process. 10 However, FrancoBritish momentum was soon lost, and subsequent events – in particular the quarrels over Iraq – have highlighted once again the differences of view between Paris and London. The core issue in Europe’s defence debates is what relationship E urope should have with the US. To simplify somewhat – but not excessively – the French believe Europe must raise its military game to provide a counterweight to the US. The main objective for the British is to be taken seriously in Washington and get a hearing for European views.In their respective approaches, the British have been more consistent. If there has been a British approach to warfare for the past 60 years, it has been to gear military capabilities to the level that is necessary to gain an entree into Washington’s decisionmaking processes. France, however, has fluctuated between its readiness to embrace an alliance with the US and its desire to develop alternatives. The problem for the French is that they cannot balance American power on their own, so they need to propose a mission for Europe as a whole.The French have often tried to get other European countries to sign up to this kind of project. But the countries that are inclined to support France do not possess substantial military assets and experience. This strategy looks forlorn unless Britain, Europe’s only other serious military power, collaborates with France. For both the French and the British, the improvement of European military capabilities is a necessary condition for further progress – either to convince the Americans that their European allies can bring some hardware to the decision-making table, or else to set the foundations for an alternative to NATO.The St Malo compromise also shows the limits of both the British and French positions. Blair agreed that the Europeans should be able to act without the Americans in contingencies involving neighbourhood crises – although he assumed that the US would agree that the EU could use NATO assets. In return, Chirac accepted that the EU could not credibly expect to duplicate NATO’s planning and command capabilities. The Iraq row has not been fatal to the European defence initiative. A more se rious problem for the EU is that its defence policy will lack substance without extra military capabilities – and these have yet to materialise.European countries cannot move 11 Seven European substantial forces with speed to anywhere governments are buying outside Europe. Only Britain has any serious, if 180 A-400M transport modest, transport capability – while Germany planes but these are short had to use Ukrainian aircraft to carry its troops range rather than long range. Only the UK has to Afghanistan. Some improvements are in long range transport planes train, albeit painfully slowly. For example, the that can carry the ? rst of the A400M transport planes should be heaviest loads. delivered in 2009. 1 These limitations do not make Europe-only operations impossible. But EU missions are either going to be small, and in effect Britishled and/or French-led, or the Europeans will have to rely upon American support, as they do in the Balkans. At the moment, EU defence p olicy gives the impression of being yet another European initiative bogged down in endless and largely pointless wrangles about process. To sceptics, the defence debates in Brussels have little to do with preparing for warfare, and more to do with reviving a ? agging European political project.This explains why the key innovations in EU defence policy tend to be about setting up new institutions in Brussels, rather than defence ministries buying new equipment. This general preoccupation in European capitals with form rather than content was evident in the debate over planning cells in 2003. In April of that year, France and Germany (together with Belgium and Luxembourg) proposed a European planning cell that would operate separately from NATO’s command structures – to the intense annoyance of Europe’s Atlanticist countries such as Britain. 22 A European way of warCan the EU develop an effective military doctrine? 23 In December 2003, EU governments agreed that t he EU would deploy a small group of operational planners to SHAPE, NATO’s planning headquarters near Mons. This group will work on ensuring a smooth relationship between the EU and NATO on ‘Berlin-plus’ missions, when the EU borrows NATO assets. There will also be a new unit of about 30 operational planners for the EU’s military staff, which currently consists mainly of ‘strategic planners’ (their job is to advise EU foreign ministers on the operational plans that may come out of SHAPE or a national military headquarters).The new unit will help with the planning of EU military and civilian missions which involve policemen. Given that there are very few places where Europeans could even think of acting militarily without a benign US attitude, and probably American logistical and intelligence support, the point of the Franco-German proposal was unclear. The fact that such proposals irritate Washington may be a bonus for some in Paris and Berlin, but it also strengthens the perception that the purpose of European defence policy has little to do with how armed forces might actually be used. articipated in operations abroad. Germany is an interesting example of this reform process. At the end of 2003 the German government decided to shift the focus of its defence planning from territorial defence towards acting overseas. By 2010 Germany will have a 35,000-strong ‘intervention’ force for combat operations and a 70,000-strong ‘stabilisation’ force for peacekeeping. To pay for this, the Germans are – sensibly – getting rid of large stocks of weapons designed for con? icts that are now unlikely to materialise.There is little point in any European country maintaining large numbers of aircraft that can deliver only ‘dumb’ bombs. The question of how European armies should work with American forces is crucial for the development of a European approach to warfare. But the terms of t he Europeans’ defence debate need to change. In particular they need to get away from taking American military prowess as the standard by which all others are judged. There are three reasons for this. First, there are very few contingencies in which the Europeans could contemplate ? hting a major war without the US. The most serious military scenarios would be in Asia – such as a future con? ict involving China. In these circumstances, it is inconceivable that European governments would act independently of the US. Moreover, when the Europeans did work with the Americans in a conventional war, the added value would be largely political rather than military. Second, comparing European military power with the US is both misleading and irrelevant. The massive American defence effort sets an impossible standard for Europeans to meet.European governments should not try to match the extravagant US force structure. Nevertheless, Europeans do need to fulfil their past promises to improve military capabilities, so that they they are not caught short in some future emergency. Crucially, this does not require a large additional financial commitment from European governments. The way forward for European defence Any attempt by governments to draw up an EU military doctrine would be fraught and probably futile. Instead, Britain and France should lead Europe in developing a European approach to warfare that is based on their recent campaigns.Other European states would have to be involved in that process, and be prepared to contribute. In many respects, British and French doctrine is already quite mature and well geared for contemporary international conditions, especially when the task involves irregular war in weak or failing states. The British operation in Sierra Leone in 2000 and the French mission to the Ivory Coast in 2002 are examples of the types of operation which the EU can expect to undertake in the near future. Furthermore, British and French doct rine has already had a significant influence on those other EU countries that have 4 A European way of war Can the EU develop an effective military doctrine? 25 Furthermore, there is not going to be a transatlantic war, and the Europeans and Americans need to be able to work together. The surge in American military technology does create new problems for Europeans trying to work alongside American soldiers on the ground. However, European governments should aim to develop armies that complement the US armed forces rather than copy them. Europeans will only act alone in those contingencies where the Americans do not see much of a role for themselves.Europeans cannot work directly against the Americans, or even take action in the face of deep American objections – though the Americans can act against European objections. Unless a well-armed rogue state emerges near Europe, such as a nuclear-armed Iran, the most likely opponents of the EU will be in Africa or the Middle East and will have weak air defences. Such opponents would not be a serious match for European forces, especially if the Americans were assisting with logistics and intelligence. It is true that the Europeans could not have fought the Kosovo war without the US, at least not in the way the Americans fought it.But European governments could have fought that war differently, with a greater stress from the start on preparations for a land war. A modest number of high quality aircraft, especially in combination with welltrained professional forces, can be extremely effective. For example, during the 1980s the Iranians spent six years outside Basra, unable to make headway against the Iraqi defences. In 2003, the British spent about eight days in that position. The conclusion is clear: Europeans do not have to ? ght as Americans. Even if they wanted to, it would be totally beyond their capabilities.But more importantly, in many contemporary con? icts they are better off ? ghting the European way. The third reason for not trying to copy the US is the dysfunctional nature of American military doctrine. Contemporary American doctrine focuses on ‘big threats’ and prepares US armed forces for capital-intensive rather than labour-intensive wars. But the conventional war stage of a conflict is shrinking, while the unconventional war stage which follows is expanding. Examples of this phenomenon are high-intensity policing in the Balkans, peacekeeping in Afghanistan, and the counter-insurgency operations in Iraq.Impressive US strides in conventional warfare are due to American cultural impatience; a political preference for quick results and technology-based solutions; and the Pentagon’s desire to use maximum resources to keep casualties to a minimum. Irregular warfare requires more patience and puts greater pressures on frontline troops and junior of? cers. Soldiers also have to co-ordinate their efforts with aid workers and diplomats, as well as quell social unr est. In these cases, the enemy understands that it will be overwhelmed in regular war. But, with a determination ? ed by nationalism, ethnic vulnerability or ideology, the enemy can embarrass the Americans by adopting traditional insurgent tactics. Iraq is a particularly challenging example, for very speci? c historical reasons. The Iraq experience is posing the biggest test to American military prowess since Vietnam – although it is not of the same proportions. The Americans have suffered heavily from a ? xation with force protection, which often leads to over-reaction by soldiers that pushes insurgents and locals together. A comparison between the American counter-insurgency operation in Baghdad and the British one in Basra in 2003-04 ? tters the British, because of the much more favourable political climate in southern Iraq. Nonetheless, it reinforces the view that the British have a better approach to this sort of campaign, in particular by understanding the importance of separating the insurgents and the local population. It is fair to say that Europeans are more skilled at this sort of campaign, in part because of the tradition of imperial policing, but also because of their more recent and extensive experience of peacekeeping. Because today’s opponents are more likely to specialise in guerrilla warfare than tanks and aircraft, there is now a paradoxical situation. 6 A European way of war The United States’ reluctance to engage in unconventional wars has constrained its surplus of power. Both the Clinton and, initially, the Bush administrations sought to dampen expectations that the US would be willing and able to sort out every local con? ict. They were especially fearful of being drawn into a series of inconclusive and domestically unpopular foreign entanglements. But the events of September 11th 2001 created new imperatives for American activism. Washington now has major commitments in Afghanistan and Iraq, and is ? nding it harde r to limit those commitments.The days when the Pentagon could insist that it would not enter a con? ict without a clear exit strategy, and then pass on the thankless and demanding task of nation-building to others, have passed. This is already starting to have important consequences for doctrine development in the US. The Iraq experience shows that a new con? ict sequence is developing in which the length of the actual war is contracting, because there are few likely enemies able to withstand intense and precise ? repower. But the post-war activity, which can be both tough and deadly, may stretch out almost inde? itely. The key question is not whether the Europeans can adapt to American doctrine, but whether the Americans can adapt to the European way of war. 3 The ‘European Security Strategy’ is not a security strategy Francois Heisbourg At the Brussels summit in December 2003, European Union governments adopted a document entitled â€Å"A secure Europe in a better wo rld† and subtitled â€Å"European Security Strategy† (hereafter referred to as the ESS). 12 In the spring of 2003, the governments had given the EU’s High Representative for foreign policy, Javier Solana, a mandate to draw up this document.